Microbiology Notes

Learn what endosymbiosis is, how endosymbiotic theory explains the origins of mitochondria and plastids, the evidence supporting it, and important modern examples.

Learn what a eukaryotic cell is, how its organelles work together, how plant, animal, fungal and unicellular cells vary, and how eukaryotes differ from prokaryotes.

Learn what a food vacuole is, how it forms and digests food, its functions in protists, examples in Amoeba and Paramecium, and how it differs from a contractile vacuole.

Learn what haploid means, how haploid cells relate to meiosis, their chromosome number in humans, key examples, and how haploid and diploid cells differ.

Learn what chloroplasts are, where they occur, how thylakoids, grana and stroma are organized, and how they function in photosynthesis, metabolism and cellular genetics.

Learn what the cell wall is, its structure and functions, and how plant, bacterial, fungal, algal, and archaeal cell walls differ in composition.

Learn what the cell nucleus is, how the nuclear envelope, pores, chromatin, and nucleolus are organized, and how the nucleus stores DNA and regulates essential cellular processes.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a continuous and dynamic membrane system present in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. It is made up of interconnected membranous tubules and flattened sacs called cisternae, enclosing an internal space known as the ER lumen. The membrane network is spread throughout the cytoplasm. Its shape and arrangement can also change within

Learn what ribosomes are, how their rRNA-protein structure enables protein synthesis, how 70S and 80S ribosomes differ, and where ribosomes occur in cells.

Learn what centrioles are, how their ninefold microtubule structure is organized, how they differ from centrosomes, duplicate during the cell cycle, and contribute to cell division and cilia formation.