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Metaphase is a stage of the cell cycle that occurs in both mitosis and meiosis cell division. During this stage, individual chromosomes cannot be observed in the cell nucleus.
17 min read 
The cytoplasm, a highly viscous substance (gel-like) that is enclosed within the cell membrane. It is composed of water (about 85%), proteins (10-15%), lipids (2-4%) and nucleic acids, inorganic salts, and polysaccharides in smaller amounts. Depending on the cell’s configuration, cytoplasm might also contain occasional inclusions (e.g. stored nutrients and pigments).
38 min read 
Animals, fungi and protists are composed of at least one eukaryotic cell. However archaea and bacteria are composed of only one prokaryotic cell. Plant cells differ from cells belonging to other organisms due to their cell walls, chloroplasts and the central vacuole.
13 min read 
Stroma, as a term in botany, refers to the transparent fluid that surrounds the grana inside the chloroplast. In the stroma, there are the grana (stacks of the thylakoid) and sub-organelles, or daughter cells in which photosynthesis begins prior to the chemical reactions being completed within the stroma.
12 min read 
Membranes are made up composed of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids that are held together with the help of binding forces.
12 min read 
In the previous article we learned about cell structure and functions. Now in this article we will learn about Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Introduction Hey, if I told you, that you are surrounded by 100 trillion bacterial cells, would you believe? Yes, If you look closer than you will find trillions of bacterial cells on … Read more
22 min read 
Cell Structure and Functions Notes. Cells are the tiny units of life that emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago. Every living thing is made up of cells, starting from the blue whales to the archaebacteria that live inside volcanoes. Our body contains approximately 40 trillion (4×1013) cells (the human brain contains around … Read more
22 min read 
Principles Of Biotechnology Biotechnology has grown and changed a lot over the years. The old way of doing it was to use microbes to make products that people could use. Now, the new way is to use genes to make vaccines. So, the European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB) has come up with a new definition … Read more
5 min read 
Biosafety Definition Biosafety defines as the application of safety precautions which reduces a laboratorians risk of exposure to potentially infectious material and limits contamination of the work environment and ultimately the community. Why we need Biosafety? We need biosafety because of; Different Biosafety Level Biosafety Level is also known as pathogen/protection level, it is referred … Read more
10 min read 
Biosafety guidelines provide guidelines, policies, and procedures that must be observed by all personnel who work in facilities handling microbiological agents, such as bacteria, viruses and parasites, fungi and prions. These guidelines are required for all institutions, including clinical and microbiological labs, biomedical research laboratories, teaching and training laboratories, and other healthcare institutions (e.g. hospitals, … Read more