Flashcards

• Impacts of humans on ecosystems View Answer
• How has scientific research contributed to changing public perceptions of smoking, and what role do scientists play in informing the public about the ... View Answer
• How can pneumocytes, capillary endothelium cells, and blood cells be identified in light micrographs and electron micrographs of lung tissue?... View Answer
• How do dissociation curves for hemoglobin and myoglobin differ, and what can these differences tell us about oxygen storage and release in tissues?... View Answer
• What are the causes and treatments of emphysema, and how does this disease affect gas exchange in the lungs?... View Answer
• Why is it important for the pH of blood to stay within the narrow range of 7.35 to 7.45, and how is this regulated?... View Answer
• What are the consequences of high altitude on gas exchange, and how does the body adapt to reduced oxygen levels?... View Answer
• How does fetal hemoglobin differ from adult hemoglobin, and how does this difference enable the transfer of oxygen in the placenta?... View Answer
• How does the rate of ventilation change during exercise in response to the amount of CO2 in the blood?... View Answer
• How does the respiratory control center in the medulla oblongata regulate the rate of ventilation?... View Answer
• How do chemoreceptors detect changes in blood pH, and how does this process contribute to respiratory regulation?... View Answer
• How does the Bohr shift explain the increased release of oxygen by hemoglobin in respiring tissues?... View Answer
• How is carbon dioxide transformed into hydrogen carbonate ions in red blood cells, and what is the significance of this transformation for gas transpo... View Answer
• In what ways is carbon dioxide carried in the blood, and how does it bind to hemoglobin?... View Answer
• How do oxygen dissociation curves demonstrate the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen, and what do they reveal about the oxygen-binding capacity under d... View Answer
• How does cooperation and collaboration between groups of scientists, such as the International Council for the Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders,... View Answer
• How does oxytocin and prolactin control milk secretion in mammals, and what are their roles in lactation?... View Answer
• Why do some athletes take growth hormones to build muscles, and what are the potential benefits and risks associated with this practice?... View Answer
• What roles do hormones secreted by the pituitary play in regulating growth, developmental changes, reproduction, and homeostasis?... View Answer
• How does the hypothalamus control hormone secretion by the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary gland?... View Answer
• What is the significance of hormone binding to membrane receptors activating a cascade mediated by a second messenger inside the cell?... View Answer
• How do peptide hormones bind to receptors in the plasma membrane of target cells, and what does this binding trigger?... View Answer
• How does the receptor-hormone complex promote the transcription of specific genes in target cells?... View Answer
• How do steroid hormones bind to receptor proteins in the cytoplasm of the target cell, and what is the role of the receptor-hormone complex in gene tr... View Answer
• How do endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, and what role does this process play in regulating body functions?... View Answer
• How did the invention of the stethoscope lead to improved knowledge of heart function and advancements in medical practice?... View Answer
• How is epidemiological data relating to the incidence of coronary heart disease used to inform public health strategies?... View Answer
• How is the cardiac cycle mapped to a normal ECG trace, and what information can be gathered from it?... View Answer
• How are systolic and diastolic blood pressure measurements interpreted, and what do they signify?... View Answer
• What are the causes and consequences of hypertension and thrombosis, and how do they impact cardiovascular health?... View Answer
• How is defibrillation used to treat life-threatening cardiac conditions, and what is its mechanism?... View Answer
• How can artificial pacemakers regulate the heart rate, and in what situations are they used?... View Answer
• What causes normal heart sounds, and how do changes in blood flow relate to the closure of the atrioventricular and semilunar valves?... View Answer
• How do conducting fibres ensure the coordinated contraction of the entire ventricle wall?... View Answer
• How does this delay allow time for atrial systole before the atrioventricular valves close?... View Answer
• What is the purpose of the delay between the arrival and passing on of a stimulus at the atrioventricular node?... View Answer
• Why can signals from the sinoatrial node not pass directly from the atria to the ventricles?... View Answer
• How does the structure of cardiac muscle cells allow the propagation of stimuli through the heart wall?... View Answer
• How have scientific studies contributed to educating the public about “good” cholesterol (HDL), and how does it impact heart health?... View Answer
• What is the dual blood supply to the liver, and how do sinusoids differ from capillaries in the liver’s structure?... View Answer
• What are the causes and consequences of jaundice, and how is it related to liver function?... View Answer
• What nutrients can be stored in excess by the liver, and how does this help regulate metabolism?... View Answer
• How does the liver intercept blood from the gut to regulate nutrient levels? View Answer
• How do the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus in hepatocytes contribute to the production of plasma proteins?... View Answer
• How does the liver convert surplus cholesterol into bile salts? View Answer
• How is iron transported to the bone marrow to produce hemoglobin in new red blood cells?... View Answer
• What is the process of erythrocyte breakdown, and how do Kupffer cells play a role in phagocytosis?... View Answer
• How does the liver recycle components of red blood cells? View Answer
• How does the liver remove toxins from the blood and detoxify them? View Answer
• How did serendipity contribute to scientific discoveries, particularly regarding the role of gastric acid in digestion, as demonstrated by William Bea... View Answer
• How can electron micrographs be used to identify exocrine gland cells that secrete digestive juices and villus epithelium cells involved in food absor... View Answer
• How does Helicobacter pylori infection contribute to the development of stomach ulcers?... View Answer
• How does cholera toxin lead to dehydration, and what effect does this have on the body’s ability to absorb water?... View Answer
• How do proton pump inhibitor drugs reduce stomach acid secretion, and what are the implications for digestion?... View Answer
• What happens to materials that are not absorbed during digestion, and how are they egested?... View Answer
• What is the relationship between the rate of transit of materials through the large intestine and their fiber content?... View Answer
• How is the structure of villi epithelial cells adapted for efficient food absorption?... View Answer
• How do acid conditions in the stomach aid hydrolysis reactions and help control pathogens in ingested food?... View Answer
• How do nervous and hormonal mechanisms regulate the volume and content of gastric secretions?... View Answer
• What is the function of exocrine glands, and how do they secrete digestive juices to the body surface or the lumen of the gut?... View Answer
• How are nervous and hormonal mechanisms involved in the control of digestive juice secretion?... View Answer
• How did the falsification of theories about scurvy lead to a new understanding of the disease, particularly the failure of attempts to induce scurvy i... View Answer
• How can databases of nutritional content of foods and software be used to calculate the intake of essential nutrients from a daily diet?... View Answer
• How can the energy content of food be determined by combustion, and why is this method useful?... View Answer
• How can cholesterol levels in the blood serve as an indicator of the risk of coronary heart disease?... View Answer
• How does anorexia contribute to the breakdown of heart muscle? View Answer
• How can a deficiency of Vitamin D or calcium lead to conditions like rickets or osteomalacia, and how does this affect bone mineralization?... View Answer
• What is phenylketonuria (PKU), what causes it, and how can it be treated? View Answer
• How do some mammals produce ascorbic acid, while others require a dietary supply of it, and what is the significance of this difference?... View Answer
• What are the consequences of starvation, and how does it lead to the breakdown of body tissue?... View Answer
• What are the risks associated with being overweight, particularly in relation to hypertension and type II diabetes?... View Answer
• How is appetite controlled by the centre in the hypothalamus, and how does this affect eating behavior?... View Answer
• What are the causes and effects of malnutrition, and how can it result from deficiencies, imbalances, or excesses of nutrients in the diet?... View Answer
• How does the lack of essential amino acids affect protein production? View Answer
• Which fatty acids and amino acids are considered essential, and what is their role in the body?... View Answer
• What role do vitamins play in the body, and why can’t they be synthesized by the body?... View Answer
• How do dietary minerals function as essential chemical elements in the body? View Answer
• What are essential nutrients, and why must they be included in the diet? View Answer
• What are the risks and benefits associated with scientific research in the context of environmental effects on male fertility, particularly related to... View Answer
• Annotate diagrams of mature sperm and egg cells to indicate their structure and function in fertilization.... View Answer
• Annotate a diagram of the seminiferous tubule and ovary to indicate the stages of spermatogenesis and oogenesis.... View Answer
• How does the 38-week pregnancy in humans compare to the development of young at birth in other mammals, particularly in terms of size and gestation pe... View Answer
• How does positive feedback involving estrogen and oxytocin mediate birth? View Answer
• How do estrogen and progesterone secreted by the placenta support pregnancy once it has formed?... View Answer
• How does the placenta facilitate the exchange of materials between the mother and fetus, and what are some examples of substances exchanged?... View Answer
• How does HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) stimulate the ovary to secrete progesterone during early pregnancy?... View Answer
• Why is the implantation of the blastocyst in the endometrium crucial for the continuation of pregnancy?... View Answer
• What mechanisms are involved in preventing polyspermy during fertilization, and why is this important for successful embryo development?... View Answer
• What are the key differences between internal and external fertilization in animals, and how do these methods ensure successful reproduction?... View Answer
• In what ways do spermatogenesis and oogenesis differ in terms of the number of gametes produced and the distribution of cytoplasm?... View Answer
• How do spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, cell growth, two divisions of meiosis, and differentiation?... View Answer
• What phenomena were investigated to understand how desert animals prevent water loss in their wastes, and what were the findings?... View Answer
• Annotate a diagram of the nephron to show the structure and function of each part involved in filtration and reabsorption.... View Answer
• Draw and label the structure of the human kidney, highlighting the role of each part in osmoregulation.... View Answer
• How are blood cells, glucose, proteins, and drugs detected in urinary tests, and what do these tests reveal about health?... View Answer
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of hemodialysis and kidney transplants in the treatment of kidney failure?... View Answer
• What are the consequences of dehydration and over-hydration on the body, particularly on kidney function?... View Answer
• How do the types of nitrogenous waste excreted by animals correlate with their evolutionary history and habitat?... View Answer
• What is the relationship between the length of the loop of Henle and an animal’s need for water conservation?... View Answer
• How does the hormone ADH control the reabsorption of water in the collecting duct of the nephron?... View Answer
• How does the loop of Henle contribute to the maintenance of hypertonic conditions in the medulla, and why is this important for osmoregulation?... View Answer
• What is the role of the proximal convoluted tubule in the reabsorption of useful substances, and how does it use active transport?... View Answer
• How does the ultrastructure of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule aid in ultrafiltration?... View Answer
• How does the composition of blood in the renal artery differ from that in the renal vein, and what does this indicate about kidney function?... View Answer
• How do the Malpighian tubule system in insects and the kidney in vertebrates carry out osmoregulation and nitrogenous waste removal?... View Answer
• What is the difference between osmoregulators and osmoconformers, and how do each maintain homeostasis?... View Answer
• How have fluorescent calcium ions advanced the study of cyclic interactions in muscle contraction?... View Answer
• How can electron micrographs be analyzed to determine the state of contraction in muscle fibers?... View Answer
• Draw and label the key structures within a sarcomere. View Answer
• How does the structure of the human elbow support its function, and what can be annotated on a diagram of this joint?... View Answer
• Describe the function of antagonistic muscle pairs in an insect leg. View Answer
• How do calcium ions and the proteins tropomyosin and troponin regulate muscle contractions?... View Answer
• What roles do ATP hydrolysis and cross-bridge formation play in the sliding of muscle filaments?... View Answer
• Explain the sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction involving actin and myosin.... View Answer
• How are myofibrils organized into sarcomeres, and why are sarcomeres important for muscle contraction?... View Answer
• Why do muscle fibers contain multiple myofibrils, and what is their role in muscle function?... View Answer
• What unique structural features characterize skeletal muscle fibers? View Answer
• Why is it necessary for muscles to work in antagonistic pairs for body movement? View Answer
• How do synovial joints restrict certain movements while allowing others? View Answer
• How do bones and exoskeletons provide anchorage for muscles, and in what ways do they act as levers?... View Answer
• What are the ethical implications of Edward Jenner’s testing of the smallpox vaccine on a child?... View Answer
• How can epidemiological data inform the effectiveness of vaccination programs? View Answer
• How can antigens on the surface of red blood cells stimulate antibody production in a person with a different blood group?... View Answer
• How do pregnancy test kits use monoclonal antibodies to detect HCG? View Answer
• Why was smallpox the first human infectious disease to be eradicated through vaccination?... View Answer
• How are monoclonal antibodies produced by hybridoma cells used in medicine? View Answer
• How is a hybridoma cell formed, and what is its significance in antibody production?... View Answer
• What role do antigens in vaccines play in developing immunity without causing disease?... View Answer
• How does the persistence of memory cells contribute to long-term immunity? View Answer
• What symptoms are caused by the action of histamines, and why? View Answer
• How does the release of histamine by white blood cells lead to allergic reactions?... View Answer
• In what ways do antibodies aid in the destruction of pathogens? View Answer
• What is the function of plasma cells in the immune response? View Answer
• How does the process of clonal selection result in the formation of plasma cells and memory cells from activated B cells?... View Answer
• What is the role of T lymphocytes in the activation of B lymphocytes in mammals? View Answer
• Why are some pathogens species-specific, and how can others cross species barriers?... View Answer
• How do unique molecules on the surface of cells help in distinguishing between self and non-self in organisms?... View Answer
• How can patterns of chromosome number in certain genera suggest speciation due to polyploidy?... View Answer
• How do geographically isolated populations show differences in allele frequencies, and why are these differences significant?... View Answer
• How does polyploidy contribute to speciation in the genus Allium? View Answer
• How can directional, stabilizing, and disruptive selection be identified in populations?... View Answer
• What are the conditions under which speciation can occur abruptly? View Answer
• How does gradual divergence of isolated populations lead to speciation? View Answer
• What are the types of reproductive isolation, and how do they prevent populations from interbreeding?... View Answer
• How does evolution depend on changes in allele frequencies within populations over time?... View Answer
• What is a gene pool, and what does it consist of in an interbreeding population? View Answer
• What patterns, trends, and discrepancies led Morgan to question Mendel’s principles and identify non-Mendelian inheritance?... View Answer
• How can a chi-squared test be applied to data from dihybrid crosses to determine significance?... View Answer
• What are recombinants, and how are they identified in crosses involving two linked genes?... View Answer
• How are the predicted genotypic and phenotypic ratios calculated in dihybrid crosses involving unlinked genes?... View Answer
• How might environmental factors influence polygenic traits, such as human height?... View Answer
• How can Punnett squares be used to predict the genotypic outcomes of dihybrid crosses?... View Answer
• What was the significance of Thomas Morgan’s discovery of non-Mendelian ratios in Drosophila?... View Answer
• How is the chi-squared test used in genetic studies to analyze frequency distributions?... View Answer
• Why do polygenic characteristics often exhibit continuous variation in phenotypes?... View Answer
• What are the differences between discrete and continuous variations? View Answer
• How does meiosis lead to the independent segregation of unlinked genes? View Answer
• When are gene loci said to be linked? View Answer
• How did careful observations and record-keeping lead Thomas Hunt Morgan to propose the concept of linked genes in response to anomalies in Mendel’s la... View Answer
• How can diagrams be used to illustrate chiasmata formed by crossing over? View Answer
• How does independent assortment occur due to the random orientation of homologous chromosome pairs in meiosis I?... View Answer
• At what stage of meiosis do sister chromatids separate? View Answer
• During which stage of meiosis do homologous chromosomes separate? View Answer
• What role does chiasmata formation play in the exchange of alleles between chromatids?... View Answer
• How does crossing over contribute to genetic variation in the chromosomes of haploid cells?... View Answer
• What is crossing over, and how does it involve non-sister homologous chromatids? View Answer
• At what stage of the cell cycle do chromosomes replicate in preparation for meiosis?... View Answer
• How has the understanding of pollinator dependence in over 85% of flowering plant species shifted approaches in ecosystem conservation?... View Answer
• How would you design an experiment to test factors that affect seed germination? View Answer
• How can half-views of animal-pollinated flowers be represented in a drawing? View Answer
• What is the internal structure of seeds, and how can it be represented in a drawing?... View Answer
• What methods are used to induce flowering in short-day plants outside of their natural season?... View Answer
• How do flowering plants use mutualistic relationships with pollinators in their reproductive processes?... View Answer
• What roles do pollination, fertilization, and seed dispersal play in plant reproductive success?... View Answer
• How does the length of light and dark periods influence the switch to flowering in many plants?... View Answer
• How does flowering in plants involve a change in gene expression in the shoot apex?... View Answer
• For what purposes is micropropagation used, including the rapid production of new varieties and virus-free strains?... View Answer
• What is the process of micropropagation using tissue from the shoot apex, nutrient agar gels, and growth hormones?... View Answer
• In what ways does auxin influence cell growth rates by altering gene expression? View Answer
• How do auxin efflux pumps establish concentration gradients of auxin in plant tissues?... View Answer
• How do plant shoots respond to environmental stimuli through tropisms? View Answer
• How do plant hormones regulate growth at the shoot apex? View Answer
• What roles do mitosis and cell division in the shoot apex play in plant development?... View Answer
• How do undifferentiated cells in the meristems of plants contribute to indeterminate growth?... View Answer
• How did the availability of radioisotopes lead to advances in experimental methods for measuring phloem transport rates?... View Answer
• How can data from experiments with aphid stylets and radioactively-labelled carbon dioxide help analyze phloem transport rates?... View Answer
• How can xylem and phloem be identified in microscope images of stems and roots? View Answer
• What are the structure-function relationships of phloem sieve tubes? View Answer
• How does increased hydrostatic pressure cause the contents of the phloem to flow toward sinks?... View Answer
• How do high solute concentrations in the phloem at the source lead to water uptake by osmosis?... View Answer
• Why is active transport used to load organic compounds into phloem sieve tubes at the source?... View Answer
• How does the incompressibility of water allow transport along hydrostatic pressure gradients?... View Answer
• How do plants transport organic compounds from sources to sinks? View Answer
• How can models serve as representations of real-world mechanisms in water transport through the xylem?... View Answer
• How would you design an experiment to test the effects of temperature or humidity on transpiration rates?... View Answer
• How can transpiration rates be measured using a potometer? View Answer
• How can you draw the structure of primary xylem vessels in stem sections based on microscope images?... View Answer
• How can models like blotting paper, porous pots, and capillary tubing simulate water transport in xylem?... View Answer
• What adaptations do plants in deserts and saline soils have for water conservation?... View Answer
• How does the active uptake of mineral ions in the roots cause the absorption of water by osmosis?... View Answer
• What role do the adhesive property of water and evaporation play in generating tension forces in leaf cell walls?... View Answer
• How do the cohesive property of water and the structure of xylem vessels enable water transport under tension?... View Answer
• How do plants transport water from the roots to the leaves to replace losses from transpiration?... View Answer
• Why is transpiration an inevitable consequence of gas exchange in leaves? View Answer
• How did the use of ¹⁴C and autoradiography help Calvin uncover the pathway of carbon fixation?... View Answer
• How would you annotate a diagram of a chloroplast to show its adaptations for photosynthesis?... View Answer
• What was Calvin’s experiment, and how did it elucidate the carboxylation of RuBP?... View Answer
• How is the structure of a chloroplast adapted to its function in photosynthesis? View Answer
• What role does ATP play in reforming ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)? View Answer
• How is triose phosphate used to regenerate RuBP and produce carbohydrates? View Answer
• How is glycerate 3-phosphate reduced to triose phosphate using reduced NADP and ATP?... View Answer
• What role does a carboxylase enzyme play in the carboxylation of ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) in the Calvin cycle?... View Answer
• What role do excited electrons from Photosystem I play in reducing NADP? View Answer
• How does ATP synthase in the thylakoid membrane use the proton gradient to generate ATP?... View Answer
• How do excited electrons from Photosystem II contribute to forming a proton gradient?... View Answer
• How are excited electrons transferred between carriers in the thylakoid membrane?... View Answer
• What is photolysis, and how does it contribute electrons to the light-dependent reactions?... View Answer
• How does light absorption by photosystems generate excited electrons? View Answer
• What are the products of the light-dependent reactions? View Answer
• Where do the light-independent reactions (Calvin Cycle) occur within the chloroplast?... View Answer
• Where do the light-dependent reactions occur in the chloroplast? View Answer
• What was the chemiosmotic theory, and how did it lead to a paradigm shift in bioenergetics?... View Answer
• How would you annotate a mitochondrion diagram to show its functional adaptations?... View Answer
• In aerobic respiration diagrams, where do decarboxylation and oxidation reactions occur?... View Answer
• How is electron tomography used to produce images of active mitochondria, and what insights does this provide?... View Answer
• How is the structure of mitochondria adapted to its function in cell respiration?... View Answer
• Why is oxygen essential in maintaining the hydrogen gradient, and what role does it play in water formation?... View Answer
• What is chemiosmosis, and how does proton diffusion through ATP synthase generate ATP?... View Answer
• How does the electron transport chain in the mitochondrial cristae use electron transfer to pump protons?... View Answer
• How is energy from oxidation reactions transported to the cristae of mitochondria by reduced NAD and FAD?... View Answer
• In the Krebs cycle, how is the oxidation of acetyl groups coupled to the reduction of hydrogen carriers, and how does this release carbon dioxide?... View Answer
• During aerobic respiration, what occurs in the link reaction to convert pyruvate into acetyl coenzyme A?... View Answer
• What is the net gain of ATP in glycolysis, and why does this occur without the use of oxygen?... View Answer
• What is the process of glycolysis, and how is glucose converted to pyruvate in the cytoplasm?... View Answer
• How does phosphorylation affect the stability of molecules in cellular processes?... View Answer
• How do oxidation and reduction reactions play a role in electron carriers during cell respiration?... View Answer
• How have advances in bioinformatics and computing facilitated research into metabolic pathways?... View Answer
• How can you distinguish between competitive and non-competitive inhibition using graphs at specified substrate concentrations?... View Answer
• How can you calculate and plot reaction rates from raw experimental data? View Answer
• How can databases be used to identify potential new drugs, such as anti-malarial compounds?... View Answer
• How does end-product inhibition regulate the pathway that converts threonine into isoleucine?... View Answer
• How is end-product inhibition used to control metabolic pathways? View Answer
• What is the difference between competitive and non-competitive enzyme inhibitors, and how do they affect enzyme function?... View Answer
• How do enzymes lower the activation energy required for chemical reactions, and why is this important?... View Answer
• What are metabolic pathways, and how are they structured in terms of chains and cycles of enzyme-catalyzed reactions?... View Answer
• How have advances in computing impacted scientific research, specifically in bioinformatics applications?... View Answer
• What can molecular visualization software reveal about the structure of eukaryotic ribosomes and tRNA molecules?... View Answer
• How can polysomes be identified in electron micrographs of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?... View Answer
• How do tRNA-activating enzymes demonstrate enzyme-substrate specificity, and what role does phosphorylation play in this process?... View Answer
• In which type of proteins does the quaternary structure exist, and how does it differ from the tertiary structure?... View Answer
• What interactions stabilize the tertiary structure of a protein? View Answer
• What forms the secondary structure of a protein, and how is it stabilized? View Answer
• How is the primary structure of a polypeptide defined? View Answer
• Why can translation occur immediately after transcription in prokaryotes? View Answer
• What types of proteins are synthesized by bound ribosomes, and what are their primary destinations within the cell?... View Answer
• What types of proteins are synthesized by free ribosomes, and what are their primary functions?... View Answer
• What happens to the translation components during the termination phase? View Answer
• How does the synthesis of a polypeptide proceed through a repeated cycle of events?... View Answer
• What occurs during the initiation phase of translation, and how are the components assembled?... View Answer
• What evidence suggests that environmental factors can trigger heritable changes in epigenetic factors?... View Answer
• How can changes in DNA methylation patterns be analyzed, and what might they indicate?... View Answer
• What role does the promoter play as an example of non-coding DNA with a function?... View Answer
• In what ways can the environment of a cell and organism affect gene expression? View Answer
• How is gene expression regulated by proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences?... View Answer
• How does mRNA splicing increase the variety of proteins that an organism can produce?... View Answer
• What modifications occur to mRNA in eukaryotic cells after transcription? View Answer
• How do nucleosomes regulate transcription in eukaryotic cells? View Answer
• In which direction does transcription occur, and why is this direction important?... View Answer
• How did Rosalind Franklin’s careful observations through X-ray diffraction contribute to the discovery of DNA’s double-helix structure?... View Answer
• How can molecular visualization software help in analyzing the association between protein and DNA?... View Answer
• What conclusions were drawn from the Hershey and Chase experiment about DNA as the genetic material?... View Answer
• What are tandem repeats, and how are they used in DNA profiling? View Answer
• How are nucleotides with dideoxyribonucleic acid used to stop DNA replication for base sequencing?... View Answer
• What was the significance of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins’ investigation of DNA using X-ray diffraction?... View Answer
• What functions do non-coding regions of DNA serve, if they do not code for proteins?... View Answer
• Which enzymes are involved in the complex system of DNA replication, and what roles do they play?... View Answer
• What is the difference between continuous and discontinuous DNA replication on the leading and lagging strands?... View Answer
• Why can DNA polymerases only add nucleotides to the 3’ end of a primer? View Answer
• How did the structure of DNA suggest a possible mechanism for DNA replication? View Answer
• How do nucleosomes contribute to the supercoiling of DNA? View Answer
• How did advancements in scientific apparatus, such as the invention of the microscope, impact William Harvey’s research on reproduction?... View Answer
• What are the structures and functions in male and female reproductive systems? (Include in an annotated diagram.)... View Answer
• What did William Harvey discover in his investigation of sexual reproduction in deer?... View Answer
• How is IVF treatment used to suspend normal hormone secretion and induce superovulation for pregnancy?... View Answer
• What causes jet lag, and how is melatonin used to alleviate it? View Answer
• How has leptin been tested in patients with clinical obesity, and what were the reasons for its failure to control the disease?... View Answer
• What are the causes and treatments for Type I and Type II diabetes? View Answer
• How do negative and positive feedback mechanisms involving ovarian and pituitary hormones control the menstrual cycle?... View Answer
• How do estrogen and progesterone influence prenatal female reproductive development and the development of secondary sexual characteristics?... View Answer
• What are the effects of testosterone on prenatal male development, sperm production, and secondary sexual characteristics during puberty?... View Answer
• How does a gene on the Y chromosome influence the development of male gonads and the secretion of testosterone?... View Answer
• What is the function of melatonin, and how does it help control circadian rhythms?... View Answer
• How does leptin regulate appetite, and where is it produced in the body? View Answer
• What role does thyroxin play in the body, and how does it influence metabolic rate and body temperature?... View Answer
• How Do Insulin And Glucagon Regulate Blood Glucose Concentrations, And Which Cells In The Pancreas Are Responsible For Their Secretion?... View Answer
• How does cooperation and collaboration between groups of scientists contribute to the research on memory and learning?... View Answer
• How can oscilloscope traces be used to analyze resting potentials and action potentials in neurons?... View Answer
• How do neonicotinoid pesticides block synaptic transmission at cholinergic synapses in insects by binding to acetylcholine receptors?... View Answer
• How do neurons secrete and reabsorb acetylcholine at synapses, and what is its role in synaptic transmission?... View Answer
• How is a nerve impulse initiated, and what is the role of the threshold potential in this process?... View Answer
• What occurs when presynaptic neurons are depolarized, and how do they release neurotransmitters into the synapse?... View Answer
• What is the function of synapses, and how do they serve as junctions between neurons and other cells like receptors or effector cells?... View Answer
• How do local currents contribute to the propagation of nerve impulses along an axon, and how does the threshold potential come into play?... View Answer
• How do nerve impulses propagate along the axons of neurons, and what is their relationship with action potentials?... View Answer
• What happens during the depolarization and repolarization phases of an action potential?... View Answer
• How do neurons pump sodium and potassium ions across their membranes to generate a resting potential?... View Answer
• What is myelination, and how does it allow for salutatory conduction of nerve impulses?... View Answer
• How do neurons transmit electrical impulses, and what role do they play in communication within the body?... View Answer
• How have epidemiological studies contributed to our understanding of the causes of lung cancer?... View Answer
• How can ventilation in humans be monitored at rest and after mild or vigorous exercise, and what are the expected changes in breathing rate and depth?... View Answer
• How do the external and internal intercostal muscles, diaphragm, and abdominal muscles work in antagonistic pairs to control ventilation?... View Answer
• What causes emphysema, and what are the long-term effects on the lungs and breathing?... View Answer
• What are the causes and consequences of lung cancer, and how does it impact lung function?... View Answer
• Why are different muscles required for inspiration and expiration, and how does muscle contraction contribute to each process?... View Answer
• How do muscle contractions create the pressure changes in the thorax that enable ventilation of the lungs?... View Answer
• How is air transported from the trachea to the alveoli, passing through the bronchi and bronchioles?... View Answer
• How do Type II pneumocytes help prevent the collapse of alveoli, and what role does surfactant play in this process?... View Answer
• What is the function of Type I pneumocytes in the alveoli, and how are they adapted for gas exchange?... View Answer
• How does ventilation maintain concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air in the alveoli and blood in adjacent capillaries?... View Answer
• What risks are associated with scientific research, specifically in the context of Florey and Chain’s penicillin tests, and how would these test... View Answer
• How does HIV affect the immune system, and what are the primary methods of transmission?... View Answer
• What did Florey and Chain’s experiments on penicillin reveal about its effectiveness against bacterial infections?... View Answer
• What are the causes and possible consequences of blood clot formation in the coronary arteries?... View Answer
• How have some strains of bacteria evolved to resist antibiotics, and what is the impact of multiple antibiotic resistance?... View Answer
• Why are antibiotics ineffective against viruses? View Answer
• Why do antibiotics target prokaryotic cells but not eukaryotic cells? View Answer
• How does the production of antibodies by lymphocytes contribute to specific immunity?... View Answer
• How does ingestion of pathogens by phagocytic white blood cells provide non-specific immunity?... View Answer
• What is the clotting cascade, and how does it lead to the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin by thrombin?... View Answer
• How do platelets contribute to the blood clotting process? View Answer
• What is the role of blood clotting in sealing cuts in the skin? View Answer
• How do the skin and mucous membranes serve as primary defenses against pathogens?... View Answer
• How did William Harvey’s findings on blood circulation challenge earlier theories, such as those of Galen?... View Answer
• How can the chambers, valves, and connecting vessels of the heart be recognized in a dissection or heart diagram?... View Answer
• How can you identify arteries, capillaries, and veins by examining their wall structure?... View Answer
• What are the causes and potential consequences of coronary artery occlusion? View Answer
• How do pressure changes in the left atrium, left ventricle, and aorta occur during the cardiac cycle?... View Answer
• What was William Harvey’s contribution to understanding blood circulation, and how does the heart function as a pump?... View Answer
• What effect does epinephrine have on heart rate, and when is it released? View Answer
• How do nerves from the medulla influence heart rate? View Answer
• How does the electrical signal from the SA node stimulate contraction in the heart chambers?... View Answer
• How does the SA node function as the heart’s pacemaker? View Answer
• What is the role of the sinoatrial (SA) node in initiating the heartbeat? View Answer
• Why is there a separate circulatory system for the lungs? View Answer
• How do veins collect and return blood to the atria at low pressure? View Answer
• What role do valves play in veins and the heart, and how do they prevent backflow?... View Answer
• Why are capillaries suited for material exchange between blood and tissues? View Answer
• How do muscle and elastic fibers in arteries help maintain blood pressure between heartbeats?... View Answer
• What is the function of muscle cells and elastic fibers in the walls of arteries?... View Answer
• How do arteries transport blood at high pressure from the ventricles to body tissues?... View Answer
• How does using models, such as dialysis tubing, help scientists understand real-world processes like absorption in the intestine?... View Answer
• What tissue layers are present in a transverse section of the small intestine, and what are their functions?... View Answer
• Can you create an annotated diagram of the digestive system and explain the functions of its parts?... View Answer
• How can dialysis tubing be used to model the absorption process of digested food in the intestine?... View Answer
• Describe the process of starch digestion in the small intestine and the transport of its products to the liver.... View Answer
• How do different membrane transport mechanisms enable the absorption of various nutrients?... View Answer
• What specific substances are absorbed by the villi in the small intestine? View Answer
• Why do villi play a crucial role in the small intestine’s ability to absorb nutrients?... View Answer
• How are macromolecules in food broken down into monomers in the small intestine, and which enzymes are involved?... View Answer
• What role does the pancreas play in digestion within the small intestine? View Answer
• How do the contractions of circular and longitudinal muscles in the small intestine aid in digestion and movement of food?... View Answer
• What role does falsification play in cladistics, and how has new evidence led to the reclassification of plant families?... View Answer
• How can cladograms be analyzed to deduce evolutionary relationships between species?... View Answer
• How has the figwort family been reclassified based on cladistic evidence? View Answer
• Can you describe a cladogram that includes humans and other primates? What evolutionary relationships does it illustrate?... View Answer
• How has evidence from cladistics led to re-evaluations of traditional classifications based on structure?... View Answer
• What is a cladogram, and what does it show about the sequence of divergence in clades?... View Answer
• What is the difference between analogous and homologous traits, and how are they identified?... View Answer
• How does the gradual accumulation of sequence differences relate to the time since two species diverged from a common ancestor?... View Answer
• How can the base sequence of a gene or the amino acid sequence of a protein provide evidence for clade membership?... View Answer
• What is a clade, and what determines if organisms belong to the same clade? View Answer
• Why is cooperation among scientists important in using the binomial naming system for species?... View Answer
• How is a dichotomous key constructed, and how is it useful in identifying specimens?... View Answer
• What features are characteristic of birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles, and fish?... View Answer
• What are the key recognition features of porifera, cnidarians, platyhelminths, annelids, mollusks, arthropods, and chordates?... View Answer
• What are the distinguishing features of bryophytes, filicinophytes, coniferophytes, and angiospermophytes?... View Answer
• Can you classify one example of a plant and one example of an animal from domain to species level?... View Answer
• How does natural classification assist in the identification of species and in predicting characteristics?... View Answer
• Why might taxonomists reclassify species, and what prompts these changes? View Answer
• How does natural classification relate to the evolutionary ancestry of species? View Answer
• What are the principal taxa used in classifying eukaryotes? View Answer
• Into how many domains are all organisms classified, and what are they? View Answer
• What hierarchy of taxa do taxonomists use to classify species? View Answer
• How are scientific names assigned to newly discovered species, and what system is used?... View Answer
• Why is the binomial naming system for species considered universal, and how has it been developed?... View Answer
• How can the theory of evolution by natural selection explain the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria?... View Answer
• How has antibiotic resistance evolved in bacteria, and what role does natural selection play in this process?... View Answer
• What changes were observed in the beaks of finches on Daphne Major, and how did they relate to natural selection?... View Answer
• How does natural selection affect the frequency of certain characteristics within a population over time?... View Answer
• How do offspring inherit characteristics from their parents, and what role does this play in natural selection?... View Answer
• How does natural selection favor individuals that are better adapted to their environment?... View Answer
• Why do species tend to produce more offspring than their environment can support?... View Answer
• How do adaptations make an individual suited to its environment and way of life? View Answer
• What are the main sources of variation in a species, and how do mutation, meiosis, and sexual reproduction contribute to it?... View Answer
• Why is variation essential for natural selection to occur within a species? View Answer
• What patterns or trends exist in the bone structures of vertebrate limbs, and what discrepancies might exist based on their varied functions?... View Answer
• How does the structure of the pentadactyl limb differ among mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles, despite its presence in all?... View Answer
• How has pollution influenced the development of melanistic (dark-colored) insects in certain areas?... View Answer
• How does continuous variation across the geographical range of related populations support the concept of gradual divergence?... View Answer
• How can populations of a species gradually diverge into separate species through evolution?... View Answer
• What is adaptive radiation, and how does it explain the evolution of homologous structures with similar structures but different functions?... View Answer
• How does selective breeding in domesticated animals demonstrate artificial selection and evolution?... View Answer
• How does the fossil record serve as evidence for evolution? View Answer
• What is evolution, and how does it occur in terms of heritable characteristics? View Answer
• How can we assess the evidence that human activities are a driving force behind climate change?... View Answer
• What are some of the claims that human activities are not contributing to climate change, and how can they be evaluated?... View Answer
• What evidence shows a correlation between global temperatures and carbon dioxide concentrations on Earth?... View Answer
• How are coral reefs threatened by increasing concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide in oceans?... View Answer
• What is the primary cause of recent increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels?... View Answer
• What correlation exists between rising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels since the Industrial Revolution and average global temperatures?... View Answer
• How do greenhouse gas concentrations influence global temperatures and climate patterns?... View Answer
• How do greenhouse gases absorb longer-wavelength radiation and retain heat within the atmosphere?... View Answer
• How does the Earth emit longer-wavelength radiation, and what role does this play in the greenhouse effect?... View Answer
• How does the impact of a greenhouse gas depend on its ability to absorb long-wave radiation and its concentration in the atmosphere?... View Answer
• Which gases, besides carbon dioxide and water vapor, also act as greenhouse gases but with less impact?... View Answer
• What are the two most significant greenhouse gases, and why are they important in the greenhouse effect?... View Answer
• Why is it important to make accurate, quantitative measurements of atmospheric carbon dioxide and methane, and how can we ensure the reliability of th... View Answer
• How can a diagram of the carbon cycle be constructed to accurately represent carbon flows?... View Answer
• What factors contribute to annual fluctuations in atmospheric carbon dioxide, and how can data from air monitoring stations help explain them?... View Answer
• How can we estimate carbon fluxes within the carbon cycle, and why is this important?... View Answer
• How do reef-building corals and Mollusca contribute to the carbon cycle, and how can their hard parts become fossilized?... View Answer
• How does the combustion of biomass and fossil fuels produce carbon dioxide? View Answer
• How did partially decomposed organic matter from past eras contribute to the formation of coal, oil, and natural gas?... View Answer
• Under what conditions does peat form, and why is organic matter only partially decomposed in these conditions?... View Answer
• What happens to methane in the atmosphere, and how is it transformed into carbon dioxide and water?... View Answer
• How and where is methane produced from organic matter, and what role do methanogenic archaeans play in this process?... View Answer
• How is carbon dioxide produced by respiration, and what happens to it after it is released by organisms?... View Answer
• How does carbon dioxide enter autotrophs from the atmosphere or water? View Answer
• In what forms is carbon present in aquatic ecosystems, and how does it differ from atmospheric carbon?... View Answer
• How do autotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other carbon compounds?... View Answer
• Use theories to explain natural phenomena- the concepts of energy flow explains the limited length of food chains.... View Answer
• How does the concept of energy flow explain the limited length of food chains? View Answer
• How can pyramids of energy be used to quantitatively represent energy flow in an ecosystem?... View Answer
• How and why is heat lost from ecosystems? View Answer
• Why can’t living organisms convert heat back into other forms of energy? View Answer
• In what ways is energy released from carbon compounds used by living organisms, and how is it eventually converted to heat?... View Answer
• How does chemical energy flow through food chains? View Answer
• How is light energy converted to chemical energy in carbon compounds during photosynthesis?... View Answer
• Why do most ecosystems rely on sunlight as a primary energy source? View Answer
• What patterns, trends, or discrepancies exist regarding autotrophic plants and algae, and which exceptions exist?... View Answer
• What does it mean when results show statistical significance? View Answer
• How is the chi-squared test used to determine associations between two species in quadrat sampling data?... View Answer
• How would you set up a sealed mesocosm to investigate ecosystem sustainability? View Answer
• How can species be classified as autotrophs, consumers, detritivores, or saprotrophs based on their nutrition mode?... View Answer
• Why do ecosystems have the potential to be sustainable over long periods? View Answer
• How is the supply of inorganic nutrients maintained in ecosystems? View Answer
• How do autotrophs obtain inorganic nutrients, and what is the role of the abiotic environment?... View Answer
• How does a community interact with the abiotic environment to form an ecosystem? View Answer
• What forms a community, and what interactions are involved? View Answer
• What are saprotrophs, and how do they obtain nutrients through external digestion?... View Answer
• What are detritivores, and how do they acquire organic nutrients? View Answer
• What are consumers, and how do they obtain their nutrients? View Answer
• What are the two main types of nutrition in species, and can some species exhibit both methods?... View Answer
• How can members of the same species become reproductively isolated in different populations?... View Answer
• How is a species defined, and what is required for organisms to be considered part of the same species?... View Answer
• How do scientists assess risks related to genetically modified crops or livestock in research?... View Answer
• What does data show regarding risks to monarch butterflies from Bt crops? View Answer
• How can examples of DNA profiles be analyzed for comparison? View Answer
• How would you design an experiment to assess factors affecting the rooting of stem cuttings?... View Answer
• How are cloned embryos produced using somatic-cell nuclear transfer? View Answer
• What are the potential risks and benefits associated with genetically modifying crops?... View Answer
• How does gene transfer in bacteria use plasmids, restriction endonucleases, and DNA ligases?... View Answer
• How is DNA profiling applied in paternity tests and forensic investigations? View Answer
• What methods have been developed for cloning adult animals using differentiated cells?... View Answer
• How can animals be cloned at the embryo stage by separating cells into multiple groups?... View Answer
• Which natural methods of cloning exist among certain plant and animal species? View Answer
• How is genetic modification carried out through gene transfer between species? View Answer
• What does DNA profiling involve, and how is it used to compare DNA samples? View Answer
• How did Mendel’s quantitative measurements and replicates in his genetic crosses with pea plants contribute to the reliability of his results?... View Answer
• How can pedigree charts be analyzed to determine the inheritance patterns of genetic diseases?... View Answer
• How can predicted outcomes of genetic crosses be compared to actual results using real data?... View Answer
• How can Punnett grids be used to predict the outcomes of monohybrid genetic crosses?... View Answer
• What were the consequences of radiation exposure following the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and the accident at Chernobyl?... View Answer
• How are cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease inherited? View Answer
• How are red-green color blindness and hemophilia examples of sex-linked inheritance?... View Answer
• How are ABO blood groups inherited? View Answer
• How do radiation and mutagenic chemicals increase mutation rates and lead to genetic diseases and cancer?... View Answer
• Why are most identified human genetic diseases rare? View Answer
• How are sex-linked genetic diseases inherited differently due to the location of genes on sex chromosomes?... View Answer
• What causes many genetic diseases in humans, and how do dominant and co-dominant alleles play a role?... View Answer
• How do dominant alleles mask the effects of recessive alleles, and what is the effect of co-dominant alleles?... View Answer
• What occurs during the fusion of gametes, and how does it result in diploid zygotes with two alleles of each gene?... View Answer
• How do alleles of each gene separate into different haploid daughter nuclei during meiosis?... View Answer
• Why are gametes haploid, containing only one allele of each gene? View Answer
• How did Mendel discover the principles of inheritance through his experiments with pea plants?... View Answer
• How was meiosis discovered through microscope examination of dividing germ-line cells?... View Answer
• How can the stages of meiosis be represented in diagrams showing the formation of four haploid cells?... View Answer
• What methods are used to obtain cells for karyotype analysis, such as chorionic villus sampling and amniocentesis, and what are the associated risks?... View Answer
• How does parental age influence the likelihood of non-disjunction events? View Answer
• What role does non-disjunction play in causing Down syndrome and other chromosomal abnormalities?... View Answer
• How does the fusion of gametes from different parents promote genetic variation? View Answer
• How do crossing over and random orientation contribute to genetic variation? View Answer
• How does the first division of meiosis reduce chromosome number through separation of homologous chromosomes?... View Answer
• How does random orientation of homologous chromosome pairs occur before separation in meiosis?... View Answer
• What processes occur during the early stages of meiosis, including pairing of homologous chromosomes, crossing over, and condensation?... View Answer
• Why is DNA replication necessary before meiosis begins? View Answer
• Why is the halving of chromosome number important for a sexual life cycle involving gamete fusion?... View Answer
• How does meiosis produce four haploid nuclei from one diploid nucleus? View Answer
• How has autoradiography contributed to research by establishing DNA molecule length in chromosomes?... View Answer
• How can databases help identify the location of a human gene and its polypeptide product?... View Answer
• How can karyograms be used to determine sex and diagnose Down Syndrome in humans?... View Answer
• How do diploid chromosome numbers vary among Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes, Canis familiaris, Oryza sativa, and Parascarsis equorum?... View Answer
• How do the genome sizes of T2 phage, Escherichia coli, Drosophila melanogaster, Homo sapiens, and Paris japonica compare?... View Answer
• How does Cairns’ technique use autoradiography to measure the length of DNA? View Answer
• How are sex and autosomes distinguished in determining an organism’s sex? View Answer
• What information does a karyogram provide about an organism’s chromosomes? View Answer
• How is the number of chromosomes a characteristic feature of a species? View Answer
• What characterizes haploid nuclei in terms of chromosome pairs? View Answer
• What defines diploid nuclei in terms of homologous chromosome pairs? View Answer
• What are homologous chromosomes, and how do they relate to gene sequence and allele variation?... View Answer
• How do different chromosomes in a eukaryote species carry different genes? View Answer
• How are eukaryote chromosomes structured, and what is their association with histone proteins?... View Answer
• Which organisms have plasmids, and why are plasmids absent in eukaryotes? View Answer
• What type of chromosome do prokaryotes have, and what is its structure? View Answer
• How has gene sequencing technology impacted scientific research developments? View Answer
• How can a database be used to identify differences in the base sequence of a gene between two species?... View Answer
• How does the number of genes in humans compare with that in other species? View Answer
• What causes sickle cell anemia, and how does a base substitution mutation affect mRNA and the polypeptide sequence in hemoglobin?... View Answer
• What was achieved by sequencing the entire base sequence of human genes in the Human Genome Project?... View Answer
• What is a genome, and what does it represent in an organism? View Answer
• How are new alleles formed by mutation? View Answer
• How do alleles differ from each other at the molecular level? View Answer
• What are alleles, and how do they represent various specific forms of a gene? View Answer
• Where does a gene occupy a specific position on a chromosome? View Answer
• What is a gene, and how does it act as a heritable factor that influences a specific characteristic?... View Answer
• Why is controlling relevant variables essential in designing experiments on photosynthesis?... View Answer
• How can photosynthetic pigments be separated by chromatography? View Answer
• How can an absorption spectrum for chlorophyll and an action spectrum for photosynthesis be designed experimentally?... View Answer
• How can an absorption spectrum for chlorophyll and an action spectrum for photosynthesis be drawn?... View Answer
• How has photosynthesis influenced changes in Earth’s atmosphere, oceans, and rock deposition?... View Answer
• How do temperature, light intensity, and carbon dioxide concentration act as limiting factors on the rate of photosynthesis?... View Answer
• Why is energy needed to produce carbohydrates and other carbon compounds from carbon dioxide?... View Answer
• How is oxygen produced in photosynthesis through the photolysis of water? View Answer
• How does chlorophyll absorb red and blue light most effectively and reflect green light more than other colors?... View Answer
• How does visible light vary in wavelengths, and which color has the shortest and longest wavelengths?... View Answer
• What is photosynthesis, and how does it produce carbon compounds in cells using light energy?... View Answer
• How should the ethics of scientific research, particularly the use of invertebrates in respirometer experiments, be assessed?... View Answer
• How can experiments involving respirometers measure respiration rates in germinating seeds or invertebrates, and what do these results show?... View Answer
• Why does lactate production occur in humans during anaerobic respiration, and how does it help maximize muscle contraction power?... View Answer
• How is anaerobic cell respiration in yeasts used to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide in baking?... View Answer
• Why does aerobic cell respiration require oxygen, and how does it provide a large yield of ATP from glucose?... View Answer
• How does anaerobic cell respiration result in a small yield of ATP from glucose? View Answer
• How is ATP from cell respiration immediately available as an energy source in the cell?... View Answer
• What is cell respiration, and how does it control the release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP?... View Answer
• How did Meselson and Stahl obtain evidence to support the theory of semi-conservative DNA replication, contributing to scientific theories?... View Answer
• How can the DNA base sequence be deduced from a given mRNA strand? View Answer
• How can a table of mRNA codons and amino acids help deduce the amino acid sequence from a known mRNA base sequence?... View Answer
• How do Meselson and Stahl’s experimental results support the theory of semi-conservative DNA replication?... View Answer
• How can a genetic code table be used to determine which codons correspond to specific amino acids?... View Answer
• How does the production of human insulin in bacteria demonstrate the universality of the genetic code and enable gene transfer between species?... View Answer
• What is the role of Taq DNA polymerase in rapidly producing multiple DNA copies through PCR?... View Answer
• How does translation depend on complementary base-pairing between mRNA codons and tRNA anticodons?... View Answer
• How do codons of three bases on mRNA correspond to specific amino acids in a polypeptide?... View Answer
• How does the mRNA sequence determine the amino acid sequence of polypeptides according to the genetic code?... View Answer
• How does translation on ribosomes synthesize polypeptides? View Answer
• What is transcription, and how does RNA polymerase synthesize mRNA from the DNA base sequence?... View Answer
• How does DNA polymerase link nucleotides to form a new strand, using an existing strand as a template?... View Answer
• What role does helicase play in unwinding the double helix and separating the DNA strands?... View Answer
• How does the semi-conservative replication of DNA rely on complementary base pairing?... View Answer
• Why is model-making an effective representation of the real world, as demonstrated by Crick and Watson’s discovery of DNA structure?... View Answer
• How can simple diagrams represent the structure of single nucleotides of DNA and RNA, using symbols for phosphates, pentoses, and bases?... View Answer
• How did Crick and Watson use model making to elucidate the structure of DNA? View Answer
• How is DNA structured as a double helix with two antiparallel strands of nucleotides linked by hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs?... View Answer
• In what ways do DNA and RNA differ in terms of strand number, base composition, and type of pentose sugar?... View Answer
• How are the nucleic acids DNA and RNA structured as polymers of nucleotides? View Answer
• Why are accurate, quantitative measurements with replicates important in enzyme experiments to ensure reliability?... View Answer
• How can an experimental investigation be conducted to determine a factor affecting enzyme activity?... View Answer
• How can experiments be designed to test the effects of temperature, pH, and substrate concentration on enzyme activity?... View Answer
• How is lactose-free milk produced, and what are its advantages? View Answer
• Why are immobilized enzymes widely used in industry? View Answer
• What causes enzymes to become denatured? View Answer
• How do temperature, pH, and substrate concentration affect the rate of enzyme activity?... View Answer
• How does enzyme catalysis involve molecular motion and the collision of substrates with the enzyme’s active site?... View Answer
• How does the active site of an enzyme enable specific substrates to bind View Answer
• What patterns, trends, and discrepancies exist in protein assembly among organisms, given that most use the same amino acids?... View Answer
• How can molecular diagrams illustrate the formation of a peptide bond? View Answer
• How does heat or deviation from optimum pH lead to protein denaturation? View Answer
• How do proteins like rubisco, insulin, immunoglobulins, rhodopsin, collagen, and spider silk illustrate the diversity of protein functions?... View Answer
• What makes an individual’s proteome unique? View Answer
• Why do living organisms synthesize a variety of proteins with a wide range of functions?... View Answer
• How does the amino acid sequence determine the three-dimensional conformation of a protein?... View Answer
• In what ways can a protein consist of either a single polypeptide or multiple polypeptides linked together?... View Answer
• How do genes code for the amino acid sequence of polypeptides? View Answer
• How can amino acids be linked in any sequence, and what range of possible polypeptides does this create?... View Answer
• Why are there 20 different amino acids in polypeptides synthesized on ribosomes? View Answer
• How are amino acids linked together by condensation to form polypeptides? View Answer
• How should health claims about lipids in diets be assessed for validity? View Answer
• How can body mass index (BMI) be determined by calculation or using a nomogram? View Answer
• How can molecular visualization software be used to compare cellulose, starch, and glycogen?... View Answer
• How can evidence and the methods used to gather it be evaluated for health claims made about lipids?... View Answer
• Why are lipids more suitable than carbohydrates for long-term energy storage in humans?... View Answer
• What scientific evidence exists regarding the health risks of trans fats and saturated fatty acids?... View Answer
• What are the structure and functions of cellulose and starch in plants and glycogen in humans?... View Answer
• How are triglycerides formed through condensation reactions involving three fatty acids and one glycerol?... View Answer
• How do cis and trans isomers differ among unsaturated fatty acids? View Answer
• What are the differences between saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids?... View Answer
• How are monosaccharide monomers linked together by condensation reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers?... View Answer
• How does the theory that hydrogen bonds form between water molecules explain the properties of water?... View Answer
• How are glucose, amino acids, cholesterol, fats, oxygen, and sodium transported in blood, and how does their solubility in water affect these modes of... View Answer
• How does water function as a coolant in sweat? View Answer
• Comparison of the thermal properties of water with those of methane. View Answer
• What makes substances hydrophilic or hydrophobic? View Answer
• How do hydrogen bonding and dipolarity explain the cohesive, adhesive, thermal, and solvent properties of water?... View Answer
• Why are water molecules polar, and how do hydrogen bonds form between them View Answer
• Falsification of theories- the artificial synthesis of urea helped to falsify vitalism.... View Answer
• How can biochemical substances like sugars, lipids, or amino acids be identified from molecular drawings?... View Answer
• How can molecular diagrams of glucose, ribose, a saturated fatty acid, and a generalized amino acid be drawn?... View Answer
• How does urea serve as an example of a compound produced by living organisms that can also be synthesized artificially?... View Answer
• What is catabolism, and how does it involve the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler molecules, such as the hydrolysis of macromolecules into m... View Answer
• What is anabolism, and how does it involve the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones, including the formation of macromolecules from monome... View Answer
• What is metabolism, and how does it represent the web of all enzyme-catalyzed reactions within a cell or organism?... View Answer
• Why is life based on carbon compounds, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids?... View Answer
• How does carbon’s ability to form four covalent bonds contribute to the diversity and stability of compounds?... View Answer
• How does molecular biology explain living processes in terms of the chemical substances involved?... View Answer
• How can the phases of mitosis be identified in cells viewed under a microscope or in a micrograph?... View Answer
• What is the correlation between smoking and the incidence of cancers? View Answer
• How do cyclins control the cell cycle, and what role do mutagens, oncogenes, and metastasis play in the development of primary and secondary tumors?... View Answer
• Why is interphase considered an active phase of the cell cycle, and what processes occur in the nucleus and cytoplasm during this time?... View Answer
• How does cytokinesis differ between plant and animal cells, and what occurs during this process after mitosis?... View Answer
• How do chromosomes condense by supercoiling during mitosis? View Answer
• Why is it important to test the principle that cells only arise from pre-existing cells, and how does this principle underpin our understanding of the... View Answer
• What evidence from Pasteur’s experiments demonstrates that spontaneous generation of cells and organisms no longer occurs on Earth?... View Answer
• How does the endosymbiotic theory explain the origin of eukaryotic cells? View Answer
• How might the first cells have arisen from non-living material? View Answer
• Why can cells only be formed by the division of pre-existing cells? View Answer
• Why is accurate quantitative measurement essential in the design of experiments involving osmosis?... View Answer
• How can osmolarity in tissues be estimated by bathing samples in hypotonic and hypertonic solutions?... View Answer
• Why must tissues or organs used in medical procedures be bathed in a solution with the same osmolarity as the cytoplasm to prevent osmosis?... View Answer
• What are the structure and function of sodium-potassium pumps in active transport and potassium channels in facilitated diffusion within axons?... View Answer
• How does the fluidity of membranes enable endocytosis and exocytosis, and what role do vesicles play in moving materials within cells?... View Answer
• How do particles move across membranes through processes such as simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and active transport?... View Answer
• How does the falsification of the Davson-Danielli model demonstrate the process of one theory being replaced by another?... View Answer
• How was the Davson-Danielli model falsified, leading to the adoption of the Singer-Nicolson model, and what does this show about using models as repre... View Answer
• What evidence from electron microscopy led to the proposal of the Davson-Danielli model?... View Answer
• How can the fluid mosaic model be represented in a drawing? View Answer
• How does cholesterol affect membrane fluidity and permeability to certain solutes in mammalian membranes?... View Answer
• What role does cholesterol play as a component of animal cell membranes? View Answer
• How do membrane proteins vary in structure, position within membranes, and function?... View Answer
• Why do phospholipids form bilayers in water, and how do their amphipathic properties contribute to this structure?... View Answer
• How have advancements in scientific apparatus, such as the invention of electron microscopes, contributed to our understanding of cell structure?... View Answer
• How can electron micrographs be interpreted to identify organelles and understand the functions of specialized cells?... View Answer
• How can the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells be represented in drawings based on electron micrographs... View Answer
• How can the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells be accurately drawn based on electron micrographs?... View Answer
• How do prokaryotes reproduce through binary fission? View Answer
• What are the structure and functions of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas and palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf?... View Answer
• Why do electron microscopes provide a much higher resolution than light microscopes?... View Answer
• How is compartmentalization a defining feature of eukaryotic cell structure? View Answer
• What characterizes the cell structure of prokaryotes, and how does the lack of compartmentalization affect them?... View Answer
• Unicellular organisms carry out all functions of life. View Answer
• What are the ethical implications of research involving stem cells, and why is this research increasingly important?... View Answer
• What trends and discrepancies exist in cell theory, and why do some organisms not conform to it?... View Answer
• How can a light microscope be used to investigate cell and tissue structure, and what steps are involved in drawing cells, calculating magnification, ... View Answer
• Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a newborn baby and from an adult’s own ti... View Answer
• Use of stem cells to treat Stargardt’s disease and one other named condition. View Answer
• Investigation of functions of life in Paramecium and one named photosynthetic unicellular organism.... View Answer
• Questioning the cell theory using atypical examples, including striated muscle, giant algae and aseptate fungal hyphae.... View Answer
• Explain – The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and also makes s... View Answer
• Describe That Differentiation involves the expressions of some genes and not others in a cell’s genome.... View Answer
• Describe Specialized tissues can develop by cell differentiation in multicellular organisms.... View Answer
• Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge due to the interaction of their cellular components.... View Answer
• Explain Cell Surface to volume is an important limitation to cell size. View Answer
• Explain that Living organisms are composed of cells. View Answer