Editorial Team

Editorial Team | Academic Writer

Welcome to Biology Notes Online! We are the BNO Team, dedicated to providing high-quality, accessible biology study notes for students and teachers alike. Our goal is to simplify complex biological concepts and present them in an easy-to-understand format, entirely free of charge. Whether you're preparing for exams, teaching a class, or simply passionate about biology, our comprehensive notes are designed to support your learning and teaching journey.

Classification of Bacteria Based on Cell Wall, pH, Temperature, salt, Nutrition, Oxygen, Shape

• Published on January 21, 2025 • 23 min readby Editorial Team

Little, single-celled creatures living practically everywhere are bacteria. They’re prokaryotic, meaning they lack a real nucleus. They differ from eukaryotic cells in that they lack membrane-bound organelles. Shapes vary; spherical (cocci), rod-like (bacilli), spiral (spirilla), or comma-shaped (vibrios). Their survival in hostile environments depends on this diversity. Some twist like corkscrews, designated as spirochaetes. There … Read more

Benedict’s Test – Principle, Reagents, Procedure, Result, Limitation

• Published on January 20, 2025 • 17 min readby Editorial Team

Benedict’s Test - Principle, Reagent Preparation, Procedure, Result, Limitation

Benedict’s test is a chemical test that is used to test for the presence of reduced sugars within an analytical test. Thus, simple carbohydrates that contain an aldehyde or free ketone functional group are detected using this test. The test is basing itself upon Benedict’s Reagent (also called Benedict’s solution) which is a complex mix of sodium carbonate, sodium citrate, and the pentahydrate of copper(II) Sulfate.

Trinocular Microscope – Definition, Principle, Parts, Protocol, Uses

• Published on January 19, 2025 • 24 min readby Editorial Team

What is Trinocular Microscope? Principle of Trinocular Microscope A trinocular microscope is similar to a binocular microscope but has an additional third eyepiece for a camera. It shines an LED light on the specimen and projects it onto a computer screen through a digital camera. The trinocular microscope is essentially a binocular microscope that focuses … Read more

Rickettsia Infection – Transmission, Diagnosis, Pathogenesis, Treatment

• Published on January 16, 2025 • 22 min readby Editorial Team

Rickettsia Infection - Tick-Borne Rickettsioses And Spotted Fever

What is Rickettsia? Small-sized intracellular bacteria with a 0.3 to 2 µm range make up the genus Rickettsia. Rickettsia’s tiny scale made it first confused as a virus. Having DNA and RNA as their genetic material, these bacteria reproduce via binary fission within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. Gram-negative rickettsia bacteria abound in the digestive … Read more

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) – Pathogenesis, Treatments, Diagnosis, Prevention

• Published on January 16, 2025 • 16 min readby Editorial Team

Treatment of Urinary Tract Infections with D-Mannose

What is Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)? An illness affecting a portion of the urinary tract—that which comprises the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethral—is known as a urinary tract infection (UTI). Following are some salient features of urinary tract infections: Types of Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) UTIs can attack various urinary system segments, causing varied symptoms. … Read more

Electron Microscope – Principle, Types, Parts, Application, Diagram

• Published on January 16, 2025 • 34 min readby Editorial Team

An electron microscope is an instrument which produces an image of a sample by means of a beam of electrons. Optical microscopes use light to form an image, electron microscopes have greater resolution, and can be used to observe objects that are too small to be seen with an optical microscope. In a large variety … Read more

Study of larval forms In Protochordates

• Published on January 14, 2025 • 18 min readby Editorial Team

Larval Forms in Protochordates The larval forms of Protochordates, along with the subphylum Cephalochordata (lancelets) and Urochordata (tunicates), are central to the clarification of the phylogeny of Chordata. The larval stages of Protochordates exhibit very typical characteristics provided within all chordates, such as the presence of a notochord. The larval forms of Protochordates are essential … Read more

Theta Model of Replication – Steps, Applications, Examples

• Published on January 13, 2025 • 10 min readby Editorial Team

Theta Model of Replication - Definition, Mechanism

What is Theta model of DNA Replication? The theta model of DNA replication is a mechanism for DNA replication which occurs in circular DNA molecules, in particular, those of bacteria, and also the mitochondria and chloroplasts. True to its name, this replication process creates an intermediate structure during replication that resembles the Greek letter theta … Read more

Codon Chart – Codon Table, mRNA Codon Chart, Amino Acids & RNA Wheel Explained

• Edited by Sourav Pan • Last Updated July 27, 2025 • 6 revisions • 10 min readby Editorial Team

A codon chart acts like life’s universal genetic dictionary, translating sequences of three DNA or RNA letters (called codons) into the 20 amino acids that build proteins. It’s essential because nearly all living things — from bacteria to humans — use this same code, allowing scientists to engineer life-saving breakthroughs like bacteria-produced insulin or mRNA … Read more

Incubator – Definition, Principle, Components, Types, Operating Procedure, Use.

• Last Updated January 8, 2025 • 0 revisions • 17 min readby Editorial Team

What is Laboratory Incubator? An incubator serves as a temperature-controlled, insulated container that laboratories utilise for cultivating and maintaining various biological cultures. This essential piece of equipment creates optimal conditions necessary for growing microorganisms in artificial environments. Like most sophisticated lab instruments, it maintains precise control over environmental factors such as temp, moisture levels, and … Read more