BNO Team 
19 min read 
What is a Genetic Code? The genetic code is a set of rules that living cells use to decipher the information encoded in genetic material (DNA or mRNA sequences). The ribosomes are responsible for carrying out the translation process. Using tRNA (transfer RNA) molecules to carry amino acids and to read the mRNA three nucleotides … Read more
7 min read 
The nucleolus is a structure within a cell’s nucleus that plays a critical role in the life of a cell. This small but mighty organelle is responsible for several important functions, including the synthesis and assembly of ribosomes. In this article, we will explore the nucleolus, its structure and function, and its role in maintaining … Read more
11 min read 
Principle of Transfection According to the definition of transfection, the external genetic material must enter the cell via the cell membrane. It is essential to highlight that the genetic material, whether DNA or RNA, is negatively charged as a result of the proteins that surround it. Therefore, in an unmanipulated environment, exogenous DNA cannot cross … Read more
11 min read 
Standard protein expression systems, including E. coli, frequently fail to generate folded, monodisperse, or functional eukaryotic proteins (see Small-scale Expression of Proteins in E. coli). Utilizing a eukaryotic system, such as mammalian cells, that includes the required folding and posttranslational machinery is highly advantageous for the expression of these proteins. Using polyethylenimine, we present strategies … Read more
6 min read 
Lentiviral transfection is a method for introducing genetic material into cells. It involves the use of lentiviruses, a type of retrovirus, to deliver the desired DNA into the target cells. Lentiviral transfection has a unique advantage over other transfection methods, in that it can infect both dividing and non-dividing cells, making it useful for a … Read more
12 min read 
Reverse transfection is a technique used in molecular biology to introduce a sample of RNA, DNA or protein into cells in culture. Instead of adding the reagents to the cells and allowing them to take them up (forward transfection), reverse transfection involves incubating the cells on a surface that is coated with the reagents. The … Read more
58 min read 
Learn all about the apoptosis pathway: its definition, functions, mechanism, and examples in this comprehensive guide. Apoptosis, also known as programmed cell death, is a crucial process for maintaining healthy cell turnover and eliminating damaged or abnormal cells. Understanding the various components and steps involved in the apoptosis pathway can provide valuable insights into diseases … Read more
47 min read 
What are Plasmids? Definition of Plasmids Plasmids are small, circular, extrachromosomal DNA molecules found primarily in bacteria that can replicate independently of the main chromosomal DNA and often carry genes beneficial to the host organism, such as those conferring antibiotic resistance. Properties/Characteristics of Plasmids Bacterial plasmids are extrachromosomal DNA fragments that exist within bacterial cells. … Read more
14 min read 
Plasma Membrane Functions of Plasma Membrane Models of Plasma Membrane Following are descriptions of the top four historical Plasma Membrane models. The examples are: 1. Lipid and Lipid Bilayer Model 2. Unit Membrane Model (Protein-Lipid Bilayer-Protein) 3. Fluid Mosaic Model Modifications of Fluid Mosaic Model 1. Microvilli 2. Intercellular Spaces 3. Interdigitations 4. Desmosomes and … Read more
14 min read 
What is Peripheral Protein? Structure of Peripheral Proteins Several peripheral proteins are marked in the picture below. A peripheral protein doesn’t have a clear structure, but it does have a few important features that make it what it is. Example of Peripheral Proteins Alternative Oxidase Cytochrome c Type-II NADH Dehydrogenase Dihydroorotate Dehydrogenase Functions of Peripheral … Read more