Sourav Pan - Biology Notes Online

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Eye and Ear Microbiome – Normal Flora of Eye & Ear

Last Updated March 25, 2025 0 revisions 9 min readby Sourav Pan

What is Eye and Ear Microbiota (Microbiome) or Normal Flora of Eye & Ear? Normal Flora of the Ear Microorganism Type Category Staphylococcus spp. Gram-positive Bacteria Alloiococcus otitis Gram-positive Bacteria Corynebacterium spp. Gram-positive Bacteria Microbacterium spp. Gram-positive Bacteria Bacillus spp. Gram-positive Bacteria Arthrobacter spp. Gram-positive Bacteria Turicella otitidis Gram-positive Bacteria Micrococcus spp. Gram-positive Bacteria Moraxella … Read more

Human Microbiome and Normal Flora of Human Body

Last Updated May 3, 2025 0 revisions 26 min readby Sourav Pan

The human body is home to trillions of tiny organisms, like bacteria, fungi, and viruses, that live on the skin, in the mouth, gut, and other areas. This community of microbes is called the human microbiome. Most of these organisms aren’t harmful—in fact, many are essential for health. They help digest food, produce vitamins, and even … Read more

Peripheral Nervous System – Structure, Functions, Types

Published on March 23, 2025 10 min readby Sourav Pan

What is Peripheral Nervous System? The peripheral nervous system acts as a bridge between the brain, spinal cord, and the rest of the body. Think of it as a network of pathways that carry messages back and forth. While the brain and spinal cord form the central command center, the peripheral system handles communication with … Read more

Dutch elm disease (DED) – Cause, Lifecycle, Spread, Management

Published on March 19, 2025 11 min readby Sourav Pan

What is Dutch elm disease (DED)? Dutch elm disease, often called DED, is a nasty problem for elm trees. It’s caused by a type of fungus that gets carried around by tiny beetles. When these beetles munch on healthy trees, they leave behind fungal spores that grow inside the tree’s veins—the parts that move water … Read more

Fusarium Wilt – Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis

Published on March 17, 2025 9 min readby Sourav Pan

What is Fusarium Wilt? Fusarium wilt is a plant disease that’s been giving gardeners and farmers headaches for ages. It’s caused by a sneaky soil-dwelling fungus called Fusarium oxysporum, which basically invades a plant’s roots and starts clogging up its internal plumbing. Imagine the plant’s vascular system—the tiny tubes that move water and nutrients—getting blocked by … Read more

Pollen-Pistil Interaction – Steps, Importance

Published on March 12, 2025 10 min readby Sourav Pan

Pollen-pistil interaction is a critical phase in plant reproduction, acting as a sophisticated biological dialogue between male pollen grains and the female reproductive structure, the pistil. When pollen lands on the stigma—the sticky tip of the pistil—it doesn’t immediately guarantee fertilization. Instead, the pistil initiates a series of biochemical checks to assess compatibility. These interactions … Read more

PCR Machine – Principle, Parts, Types Steps, Applications

Last Updated March 22, 2025 0 revisions 19 min readby Sourav Pan

PCR Machine - Definition, Principle, Parts, Types Steps, Applications, Examples

A PCR machine is a common tool found in labs, especially if you’ve ever dealt with DNA testing or medical diagnostics. At its core, it’s designed to create millions of copies of a specific DNA segment, which sounds simple but is incredibly powerful for tasks like identifying infections, studying genetic mutations, or even solving crimes. … Read more

Electroporation – Principle, Steps, Applications

Published on March 7, 2025 8 min readby Sourav Pan

What is Electroporation? Electroporation is a fascinating technique that temporarily makes cell membranes more permeable by applying brief electric pulses. This method, widely used in labs and medical settings, allows substances like DNA, drugs, or proteins to enter cells by creating tiny pores in the membrane. Imagine zapping cells with a controlled jolt of electricity—this … Read more

Electroporator – Definition, Principle, Types, Protocol, Applications

Published on March 6, 2025 20 min readby Sourav Pan

What is Electroporator (Electroporation machine)? An electroporator, often called an electroporation machine, is a lab instrument used to temporarily make cell membranes more permeable. Think of it as a precision tool that helps scientists sneak substances like DNA, drugs, or proteins into cells—something that’s tricky to do manually because cell membranes are naturally protective. The … Read more

Micropipettes – Parts, Types, Applications, Techniques

Published on March 5, 2025 30 min readby Sourav Pan

What is a micropipette? A micropipette is a precision laboratory instrument designed to measure and transfer extremely small volumes of liquid, typically ranging from 0.1 microliters to 1,000 microliters. Commonly used in molecular biology, chemistry, and medical labs, it operates like a highly accurate eyedropper, enabling researchers to handle samples with meticulous control. The device … Read more