Editorial Team

Editorial Team | Academic Writer

Welcome to Biology Notes Online! We are the BNO Team, dedicated to providing high-quality, accessible biology study notes for students and teachers alike. Our goal is to simplify complex biological concepts and present them in an easy-to-understand format, entirely free of charge. Whether you're preparing for exams, teaching a class, or simply passionate about biology, our comprehensive notes are designed to support your learning and teaching journey.

Microbial Degradation of Lignin – Microorganisms, Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms, Challenges

• Edited by Sourav Pan • Last Updated July 15, 2025 • 2 revisions • 15 min readby Editorial Team

What is lignin? Lignin is a complex, high-molecular-weight polymer made mostly of phenolic compounds. It is found in the cell walls of vascular plants, especially in the secondary cell wall during the development of xylem, phloem fibres, and sclerenchyma cells, which give the plant strength, support, and waterproofing. It is made up of three main … Read more

Brucella Agar – Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses

• Edited by Sourav Pan • Last Updated July 31, 2025 • 5 revisions • 14 min readby Editorial Team

Brucella is an intracellular parasite which causes epizootic abortions for animals, and septicemic febrile disease or localized infections of tissues, bones or organ systems of humans. Brucella species are very meticulous and require a rich nutrient environment to develop. Additionally, Brucella species are highly infectious, and therefore extreme caution should be exercised when handling.

Phyllosphere Microorganisms – Examples, Factors, Effects

• Published on July 6, 2025 • 24 min readby Editorial Team

The phyllosphere refers to the entirety of a plant’s above-ground surface, which provides a habitat for microorganisms, particularly in the aerial components such as leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits. Phyllosphere Microorganisms – These are microbiological entities that inhabit the aerial surfaces of plants, particularly the leaf surface (phylloplane). What is Phyllosphere? Phyllosphere – the aerial … Read more

Soil Formation (Pedogenesis)- Definition, Factors, Process, Steps, Examples

• Last Updated August 13, 2025 • 5 revisions • 16 min readby Editorial Team

What is Pedogenesis? Pedogenesis is the natural process of soil formation resulting from the interplay of physical, chemical, biological, and climatic elements throughout time. Chronology – In 1883, Vasily Dokuchaev posited that soil is a product of climate, vegetation, parent material, and temporal factors. In 1941, Hans Jenny established the CLORPT model—Climate, Organisms, Relief, Parent … Read more

Microbial degradation of hemicellulose – Definition, Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms

• Published on July 5, 2025 • 13 min readby Editorial Team

Hemicellulose is a group of polysaccharides found in plant cell walls, associated with cellulose and lignin. Unlike cellulose which is a linear polymer of glucose, hemicellulose is a branched, amorphous polymer of various sugar monomers like xylose, mannose, galactose, rhamnose and arabinose. It acts as a matrix component that binds with cellulose fibrils and lignin, … Read more

Microbial Degradation of Chitin – Microorganisms, Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms

• Published on July 5, 2025 • 10 min readby Editorial Team

Microbial Degradation of Chitin - Definition, Microorganisms, Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms

What is chitin? Structure of chitin What are Chitinases? Chitinases are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of the β-1,4-glycosidic bonds in chitin They belong to the glycosyl hydrolase family with EC number 3.2.1.14 Two main types exist based on cleavage mode They are produced by bacteria, fungi, plants and some animals for nutrition, defense or … Read more

Difference Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells – Prokaryotic Vs Eukaryotic Cells

• Last Updated June 26, 2025 • 1 revisions • 10 min readby Editorial Team

Difference Between Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cells

What is Prokaryotic Cell? What is Eukaryotic Cell? Difference Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Feature Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Nucleus Absent; genetic material located in a nucleoid region. Present; genetic material enclosed within a nuclear envelope. Membrane-bound organelles Generally absent (e.g., mitochondria, chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus). Present (e.g., mitochondria, chloroplasts in photosynthetic cells, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi … Read more

Top 30 Differences Between Bacteria, Archae, and Eukarya

• Published on June 22, 2025 • 12 min readby Editorial Team

Differences Between Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.

What is Bacteria? Bacteria represent a category of microscopic, unicellular organisms that are classified as prokaryotes, characterised by the absence of a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles. These organisms are found in a wide range of habitats across the planet, including extreme environments such as deep-sea vents and arctic ice, as well as more common settings … Read more

20 Difference Between Darkfield and bright Field Microscope

• Last Updated June 26, 2025 • 0 revisions • 4 min readby Editorial Team

What is Bright Field Microscope? What is Dark Field Microscope? Difference Between Bright Field Microscope and Dark Field Microscope Feature Bright‑Field Microscope Dark‑Field Microscope Image Background Bright Dark Specimen Appearance Dark/stained specimens appear visible Unstained specimens appear bright against dark Illumination Transmitted white light through specimen Oblique/scattered light; direct light blocked Contrast Mechanism Light absorption … Read more

What is the Difference Between Holobasidium and Phragmobasidium?

• Published on June 20, 2025 • 7 min readby Editorial Team

What is Holobasidium? What is Basidium? What is Phragmobasidium? Difference Between Holobasidium and Phragmobasidium Holobasidium and Phragmobasidium are two distinct types of basidia, which are reproductive structures found in fungi belonging to the division Basidiomycota. These structures play a crucial role in the life cycle of these fungi, particularly in spore production and dispersal. Understanding … Read more