Genetics

Genetics is the branch of biology that studies genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms. It explores how traits are passed from parents to offspring through genes, which are segments of DNA that carry instructions for building and maintaining an organism.

Key areas in genetics include:

Molecular Genetics: Studies how DNA, RNA, and proteins function in cells.
Mendelian Genetics: Focuses on inheritance patterns based on Gregor Mendel’s laws.
Population Genetics: Examines how genetic variations occur within populations over time.
Genomic Studies: Involves sequencing and analyzing whole genomes to understand genetic influence on traits.

Codon Chart – Codon Table, mRNA Codon Chart, Amino Acids & RNA Wheel Explained

• Edited by Sourav Pan • Last Updated July 27, 2025 • 6 revisions • 10 min readby Editorial Team

A codon chart acts like life’s universal genetic dictionary, translating sequences of three DNA or RNA letters (called codons) into the 20 amino acids that build proteins. It’s essential because nearly all living things — from bacteria to humans — use this same code, allowing scientists to engineer life-saving breakthroughs like bacteria-produced insulin or mRNA … Read more

Various model of Replication – Theta, rolling circle, and linear DNA replication

• Last Updated December 23, 2024 • 0 revisions • 14 min readby Sourav Pan

Plasmids are small circular molecules of DNA that exist independently of chromosomal DNA within a cell. Because they replicate independently, these molecules are called replicons. The plasmids have an origin of replication known as the ori site from which replication begins. Plasmids encode a few of their own proteins, but when it comes to replication … Read more

Artificial Selection – Theory, Types, Advantages, Examples

• Published on October 26, 2024 • 20 min readby Sourav Pan

What is Artificial Selection? Definition of Artificial Selection Artificial selection, or selective breeding, is the human-driven process of breeding plants or animals to promote desirable traits in offspring by selecting specific individuals with those traits to reproduce. Darwin’s Experiments With Artificial Selection Darwin’s experiments with artificial selection were pivotal in the development of his theories … Read more

Genetic variation – Definition, Types, Causes, Examples

• Published on October 25, 2024 • 10 min readby Sourav Pan

What is genetic variation? Definition of genetic variation Genetic variation refers to the differences in DNA sequences among individuals within a population, resulting in diverse traits. This variation arises from factors such as mutations, gene recombination during reproduction, and genetic drift, and it plays a crucial role in evolution and adaptation to changing environments. Types … Read more

Gene Expression and Cell Specialization – AP Biology Notes

• Published on October 25, 2024 • 31 min readby Sourav Pan

What is gene expression, and how does it relate to cell specialization? Gene expression is a fundamental biological process through which the information encoded in a gene is utilized to produce functional products, primarily proteins. This mechanism plays a crucial role in cell specialization, often referred to as cell differentiation, wherein generic cells evolve into … Read more

DNA Helicases – Structure, Types, Mechanism, Functions, Examples

• Published on October 24, 2024 • 36 min readby Sourav Pan

What is Helicase? What is DNA Helicase? History of DNA Helicases The history of DNA helicases begins with their discovery in the mid-1970s. These enzymes, crucial for unwinding DNA strands, have been extensively studied across a wide range of organisms. From bacteria to plants and humans, research on helicases has revealed their essential role in … Read more

Nondisjunction – Types, Causes, Consequences, Examples

• Published on October 24, 2024 • 17 min readby Sourav Pan

What is Nondisjunction? Types of Nondisjunction Nondisjunction is a critical genetic error that can occur during cell division, specifically during both mitosis and meiosis. Understanding the types of nondisjunction is essential for grasping how chromosomal abnormalities arise. Below are the primary types of nondisjunction, detailing their mechanisms and consequences. In both mitotic and meiotic nondisjunction, … Read more

Transgenic Animal – Definition, Methods, Applications, Examples

• Published on September 20, 2024 • 36 min readby Sourav Pan

What is Transgenic Animal? Definition of Transgenic Animal A transgenic animal is an organism that has had a foreign gene (transgene) deliberately inserted into its genome, allowing the gene to be expressed and passed on to future generations. Steps for Production of Transgenic Animals The production of transgenic animals involves a detailed and systematic approach … Read more

Point mutation – Definition, Causes, Types, Examples

• Published on September 12, 2024 • 17 min readby Sourav Pan

What is Point mutation? Definition of Point mutation A point mutation is a genetic mutation involving a change in a single nucleotide base in the DNA or RNA sequence, which can affect the sequence of amino acids in a protein. Causes of Point mutation Point mutations are primarily caused by various mechanisms that affect the … Read more

Missense Mutation – Definition, Types, Causes, Examples

• Published on September 12, 2024 • 16 min readby Sourav Pan

What is Missense Mutation? Definition of Missense Mutation A missense mutation is a type of point mutation in which a single nucleotide change results in the substitution of one amino acid for another in the protein sequence, potentially altering the protein’s function. Types of Missense Mutation There are two Types of Missense Mutation; Causes of … Read more