Laboratory Hot Plate –  Definition, Principle, Parts, Uses

What is Hot Plate?

  • A hot plate is a versatile laboratory device that is used to uniformly heat samples, solutions, and materials to specific temperatures, providing a safe alternative to open flames commonly associated with heating processes.
  • Hot plates are designed with a flat surface equipped with heating elements. They are particularly useful for applications where an open flame is not desired, such as in oil or sand baths. Hot plates often work in conjunction with a magnetic stirrer to maintain a consistent temperature and ensure optimal homogeneity of liquids.
  • These devices are highly portable and typically feature one or two gas burners. There are two main sizes available: the single burner and the double burner. Depending on the model, different types of burners can be utilized, and some burners may even function as electric heating elements. One of the key advantages of hot plates is their ease of use, as they only require electricity to operate. Additionally, they are relatively simple to maintain and clean. However, it is crucial to prevent corrosion to ensure their longevity.
  • Hot plates are constructed with various materials, including a stainless steel exterior layer, a thermal conductivity plate, and insulation materials like mica soft board. Electric heating wires are commonly used as the heating material, which ensures efficient and uniform heat distribution.
  • In addition to laboratory applications, hot plates are also employed in various settings outside the lab. They find use in kitchens, where they serve as portable cooking appliances, especially in environments where traditional stovetops are not available or practical. Hot plates offer a compact and convenient solution for cooking or heating food.
  • Whether in the laboratory or the kitchen, hot plates provide a reliable and controlled heating source without the need for open flames, making them a valuable tool for heating and temperature regulation in a wide range of applications.

Definition of Hot Plate

A hot plate is a portable heating device with a flat surface used to heat samples or materials in a controlled manner without the need for an open flame.

Principle of Hot Plate

The principle of a hot plate involves the use of electric current and magnetic fields to generate heat and facilitate stirring. The heating element, usually an electric alloy wire, is responsible for producing heat when a current passes through it. This heat is then conducted to the outer surface of the hot plate.

In the case of a hot plate stirrer, electromagnetic fields are utilized for stirring purposes. The hot plate contains electromagnets within its internal structure, and a magnetic stir bar, chemically inert and coated, is placed in the solution container. When the hot plate is activated, the electromagnets generate an electromagnetic field. This field interacts with the static magnetic field of the stir bar, causing it to rotate and stir the solution. Simultaneously, the solution is heated by the heating mechanism.

The hot plate stirrer typically has adjustment knobs for temperature control and rotational speed. By adjusting these knobs, the user can regulate the temperature of the hot plate and control the speed at which the solution is stirred.

To ensure efficient stirring, it is important to position the container with the solution in the center of the hot plate. This allows for even mixing and heating throughout the solution.

Types of Hot Plates

Based on the design, hot plates are of three types

  1. Standard hot plate: This is a standard hot plate, which is a machine with only a heating system and no stirrer. However, less maintenance and recalibration procedures are required.
  2. Stirring magnet with hot plates: Under the surface of this hot plate is a heating system and an electromagnet. The electromagnet forces the magnetic bar immersed in the solution to rotate at a maximum speed of 2,500 revolutions per minute. Note that the heating plate and magnetic stirrer cannot operate simultaneously.
  3. Stirring hot plate: Here, the heating and stirring elements are positioned beneath the smooth top surface of the machine. It is typically the most expensive variety, but it gives homogeneous heating to samples of high volume or viscosity.

Based on the material used in making a hot plate surface, there are

  1. Ceramic hot plates: These ceramic hot plates can handle temperatures up to 350°C. The tops are corrosion-resistant yet vulnerable to thermal stress from metal cylinders. Use these exclusively to heat glass beakers.
  2. Aluminum hot plates: The aluminium tops offer more heat uniformity than any other heating surface and are more durable and difficult to shatter. The system is appropriate for lab tasks with a high throughput.
  3. Polypropylene hot plates: Warming plates made of polypropylene: Unlike ceramic and aluminium plates, this plate cannot acquire extremely high temperatures. They are, nevertheless, highly resistant to chemicals, acids, and solvents. These plates are utilised in wet chemistry laboratory procedures, including those involving acetonitrile, methanol, and ethanol.
  4. Stainless steel hot plates: These hot plates are very resistant to corrosion, ethers, and the majority of alcohols. They are appropriate for ISO-grade cGMP spaces, clean rooms, and USP-compliant facilities and encourage aseptic conditions.

Parts of Laboratory Hot Plate

Parts of Laboratory Hot Plate
Parts of Laboratory Hot Plate

A. Product Controls and Indicators 

Product controls and indicators play a crucial role in operating a hot plate and ensuring precise temperature control and stirring speed. Here are some key controls and indicators commonly found on hot plates:

  1. Power indicator: This indicator illuminates continuously when the hot plate is properly connected to the power source, indicating that it is ready for operation.
  2. Stir control knob: The stir control knob allows the user to adjust the stirring speed. By turning it clockwise, the stirring speed increases, while turning it completely counter-clockwise stops the stirring action altogether.
  3. Stirring speed display: The stirring speed display shows the current speed at which the hot plate is stirring the solution. It provides a visual reference for the set stirring speed.
  4. Heat control knob: The heat control knob is used to regulate the heating system of the hot plate. Turning it clockwise increases the heat output, while turning it completely counter-clockwise turns off the heating system.
  5. Heating temperature display: The heating temperature display indicates the temperature set for heating the hot plate. It shows the desired temperature for maintaining the desired thermal conditions.
  6. Hot top indicator: The hot top indicator serves as a safety feature. When the top surface of the hot plate becomes too hot to touch, exceeding a certain threshold (such as 60°C), the indicator illuminates, warning the user of the high temperature.
  7. Temperature probe in use indicator: Some hot plates are equipped with the capability to connect an external temperature probe for precise temperature measurements. When the unit is connected to an external temperature probe, the temperature probe in use indicator illuminates to indicate its active status.

These controls and indicators provide users with the necessary information and options to regulate the stirring speed, heating temperature, and ensure safety while operating the hot plate.

B. Connections 

Connections on a hot plate serve specific purposes and enable the attachment of essential components. Here are two common types of connections found on hot plates:

  1. Power cord input: The power cord input is the connection point where the power cord of the hot plate is attached. This connection allows the hot plate to receive electrical power from a power source. It is important to securely plug the power cord into this connector to ensure proper functioning of the hot plate.
  2. External temperature controller input: Some hot plates offer the option of connecting an external temperature controller for enhanced temperature regulation. The external temperature controller is a separate device that allows more precise control over the heating temperature. The input connector provided on the hot plate enables the connection of this optional external temperature controller. By plugging the external temperature controller into this connector, users can utilize its advanced temperature control features in conjunction with the hot plate.

These connections are designed to provide flexibility and expand the functionality of the hot plate. They allow users to connect the power cord for power supply and attach an external temperature controller to achieve more accurate temperature control if desired. Ensuring secure and proper connections at these points is important for safe and effective operation of the hot plate.

C. Top plate

The top plate of a hot plate is an essential component that directly comes into contact with the materials being heated. It plays a crucial role in conducting and distributing heat evenly across the surface. When selecting a hot plate, it is important to consider the properties of the top plate to ensure it is suitable for the specific heating requirements. Here are some key points to understand about the top plate:

  1. Material Selection: Hot plate top plates are commonly made from different materials such as aluminum, ceramic, or enamel. Each material has its own set of characteristics and is suitable for specific applications.
  • Aluminum: Aluminum top plates offer good thermal conductivity, allowing for efficient heat transfer. They are often lightweight and durable, making them suitable for general heating purposes.
  • Ceramic: Ceramic top plates are known for their excellent chemical resistance and high-temperature stability. They can withstand higher temperatures compared to aluminum plates, making them ideal for applications that require elevated temperatures or involve corrosive substances.
  • Enamel: Enamel-coated top plates provide a smooth and easy-to-clean surface. They offer moderate heat conductivity and are commonly used in educational or laboratory settings.
  1. Heat Conductivity: The conductivity of the top plate material determines how effectively it transfers heat to the materials being heated. Aluminum has relatively high thermal conductivity, allowing for rapid and uniform heat distribution. Ceramic and enamel top plates have lower thermal conductivity but can still provide efficient heat transfer within their temperature limits.
  2. Temperature Limit: Each top plate material has a maximum temperature it can withstand without degrading or compromising its performance. It is crucial to choose a hot plate with a top plate material that can safely accommodate the desired temperature range for your specific application.

By considering the material composition, heat conductivity, and temperature limits of the top plate, users can select a hot plate that suits their heating requirements and ensures optimal performance and safety.

To Connect the External Temperature Controller 

  1. Turn off both the Stir Control Knob and the Heat Control Knob.
  2. Unplug the power cord.
  3. Insert connector for temperature controller into input connector.
  4. Reconnect the power cable.
  5. The product is now compatible with the External Temperature Controller.
  6. When detaching the temperature controller, repeat the procedure described above.

D. Accessories

Accessories are additional components or attachments that can enhance the functionality and versatility of a hot plate or laboratory setup. They provide support, stability, and additional features for various experiments and procedures. Here are some common accessories used with hot plates:

  1. Vertical Support Rod: A vertical support rod is a long metal rod that can be attached to the hot plate or lab stand. It provides vertical support and stability for other accessories or apparatus, such as clamps, holders, or attachments.
  2. Holding Rod: A holding rod is a horizontal rod that can be attached to the vertical support rod. It offers a secure platform for attaching various equipment, such as clamps, holders, or other apparatus required for the experiment.
  3. External Temperature Controller: An external temperature controller is an accessory that allows precise temperature regulation and control of the hot plate. It typically features a separate unit with temperature adjustment settings, which can be connected to the hot plate to ensure accurate and stable temperature control during experiments.
  4. Boss Head Clamp: A boss head clamp is a versatile clamp designed to securely hold various laboratory apparatus, such as burettes, condensers, or thermometer holders, onto the support rod. It provides flexibility in positioning and adjusting the height or angle of the attached equipment.
  5. Thermometer Holder: A thermometer holder is a specialized accessory that securely holds thermometers in place during experiments. It ensures accurate temperature measurements by keeping the thermometer in the desired position and preventing it from falling or moving.

These accessories help to customize the hot plate setup according to specific experimental requirements, providing stability, adjustability, and precise control over the apparatus. They enable the attachment of various equipment and enhance the overall efficiency and safety of laboratory procedures conducted using hot plates.

Operating Procedure of Hot Plate

  1. Prepare the Workspace: Ensure that your workspace is clean, organized, and free from any clutter. Remove any unnecessary items that may interfere with the operation of the hot plate.
  2. Placement: Place the hot plate on a level and stable surface. Ensure that the surface is flat to provide stability during operation.
  3. Clean the Hot Plate: Before use, make sure the hot plate is clean and free from any dust or residue. Wipe the surface of the hot plate with a clean cloth or paper towel.
  4. Power Connection: Connect the power cord of the hot plate to a suitable power supply. Ensure that the voltage matches the requirements of the hot plate.
  5. Fill the Vessel: Fill the vessel, such as a beaker or flask, with the solution or sample that needs to be heated. Place the vessel on the top plate of the hot plate.
  6. Heat Control: Turn the heat control knob clockwise to activate the heating element. The heat light should turn on, indicating that the hot plate is heating up.
  7. Set the Desired Temperature: Adjust the heat control knob to set the desired temperature for heating the solution. Turn it clockwise to increase the temperature and counterclockwise to decrease it. Refer to any temperature display if available.
  8. Magnetic Stirrer: If using a magnetic stirrer, carefully place a magnetic stir bar or magnetic flea into the vessel containing the solution.
  9. Activate Stirring: Once the heat light is on and the desired temperature is set, turn the stir control knob clockwise to activate the magnetic stirring function. The stir control knob allows you to adjust the stirring speed to your preferred setting.
  10. Operation Completion: When you have finished heating and stirring the solution, turn off the hot plate by turning the heat control knob completely counterclockwise. Ensure that the power supply to the hot plate is also switched off.
  11. Clean and Maintain: After use, allow the hot plate to cool down before cleaning. Clean the hot plate and the surrounding area, removing any spills or residue. Use appropriate cleaning agents and follow safety guidelines.

By following these operating procedures, you can safely and effectively use a hot plate for your heating and stirring needs. Always refer to the manufacturer’s instructions and exercise caution when working with hot surfaces and electrical equipment.

Features 

Hot plates come with various features that enhance their functionality and safety. Here are some key features commonly found in hot plates:

  1. Magnetic Stirrers: Many hot plates incorporate magnetic stirrers, eliminating the need for a separate stirring device. This feature is especially useful for heating liquids as it ensures efficient heat distribution and promotes homogeneity.
  2. Surface Material: Hot plates have surfaces made of materials such as aluminum or ceramic. It is important to select a hot plate with a surface suitable for the substances you will be heating. Consider factors like heat transfer characteristics and maximum temperature compatibility.
  3. Digital Readouts and Thermocouple Inputs: Some hot plates feature digital readouts and thermocouple inputs, allowing precise control of heat bath temperatures. These advanced controls enable accurate temperature regulation and enhance process control.
  4. Safety Measures: Certain hot plates are equipped with safety measures to ensure user safety. They may include automatic shut-off mechanisms that activate when the temperature exceeds a predetermined threshold. These safety features provide an added layer of protection during operation.
  5. Hermetically Sealed Heating Elements: Modern hot plates often have heating elements that are hermetically sealed, minimizing sparks or eliminating them altogether. While they are not explosion-proof, these designs help reduce the risk of sparks and improve safety. However, it is still recommended to use hot plates for heating organic substances, like oil baths or solvents, under a fume hood to maintain a safe environment.
  6. Spark Hazard Prevention: Newer hot plate models are designed with on/off switches and thermostats that minimize the risk of sparks. Older hot plates, particularly those with bimetallic thermostats, can pose a spark hazard as the thermostats may fuse shut, resulting in continuous current flow. It is important to exercise caution when using older hot plate models and consider upgrading to newer, safer designs.

When selecting a hot plate, it is crucial to consider these features in addition to pricing. Features such as magnetic stirrers, precise temperature control, and safety measures can greatly improve your experimental processes and ensure a safer working environment. Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions and adhere to recommended safety practices when operating hot plates.

Safe Practices with Hot Plates

Hot plates are a safe alternative to procedures involving an open flame, although they are not entirely risk-free. Consider the following safety precautions when using a hot plate:

Safe Practices with Hot Plates
Safe Practices with Hot Plates
  1. On many brands of stirrer/hot plate combinations, the controls for the stirrer and temperature control have identical appearances. Their tasks must be distinguished with caution.
  2. Some hot plate types have been seen to have faulty on/off switches, resulting in continued heating even when the switches are in the off position. This has caused fires in a number of laboratories. Periodically test the “off” switch on hot plates and heating mantles by ensuring the heating equipment cools rapidly. Any unit failing this test must be removed from service immediately.
  3. On some versions, the temperature knobs can be adjusted in the same direction from “LOW” to “OFF” and then to “HI”. In a recent laboratory incident, a researcher rotated beyond the “OFF” position and into the “HI” position, burning the mineral oil bath.
  4. Recognize the location of your fire extinguishers and how to use them. Do not use liquid nitrogen or water to extinguish an oil bath fire, since this could cause burns and cause the fire to spread.
  5. Ensure that the heated glass is composed of heat-resistant materials, such as borosilicates. Soda-lime glass or “soft glass” should not be used on a hot plate since it is not resistant to temperature fluctuations. Do not place glasses with thick walls straight on hot surfaces. It warms unevenly and is susceptible to shattering or cracking.
  6. Before using glassware on a hotplate, check for visible damage and ensure that the hotplate is larger than the object being cooked.
  7. The surface and element of a hotplate can approach the “Flash Point Temperature” of many flammable or combustible substances.
  8. The direct heating of solvents, particularly low-boiling solvents like ether and carbon disulfide (bp 30-60°), poses a fire hazard and should be avoided. Using a water bath will allow for more precise temperature regulation and uniform heat dispersion. If boiling these solvents is required, do not use an open beaker or flask. Use a condenser always.
  9. If the heating system is already hot, the reagent or solvent must be added via a dropping funnel (closed system) rather than a standard funnel. Adding these substances directly will cause a flash fire and moisture absorption.
  10. Remove hot objects from the hot plate using thermal gloves or tongs.
  11. Avoid performing high temperature/pressure reactions unattended.
  12. Water or solvent leakage from the condenser or addition funnels should be avoided, especially when employing an oil bath. Due to thermal shock, the water will likely cause the oil bath container to shatter.

Basic Precautions of Hot Plate

  • Periodically verify that the “off” switch on each hot plate, heating mantle, and water bath works and that the device promptly cools when the switch is in the “off” position.
  • Always inspect equipment before usage. If the plug or cable is worn, frayed, or broken, if the grounding pin has been removed, or if a spark is noticed, do not use the product. Check the thermostat for corrosion, which can also create a spark.
  • Never keep flammable chemicals or combustible materials in close proximity to a hot plate, and restrict the usage of older hot plates for flammable materials.
  • Before using heating equipment, read the manufacturer’s instructions and register the device with the manufacturer so you can be alerted of any recalls or warnings.
  • Unplug any equipment while not in use.

Applications of Hot Plate

Hot plate stirrers are versatile laboratory devices that find applications in various fields. Here are some common uses of hot plate stirrers:

  • Laboratory Research: Hot plate stirrers are widely used in laboratory settings for heating and stirring substances. They are utilized to warm specimens in cytological, histological, and pathological investigations. Hot plates are also employed for heating glassware or its contents during various scientific experiments and processes.
  • Cooking: Hot plates are commonly used for cooking in places where a full kitchen stove is not available or convenient. They provide a compact and portable cooking solution, making them suitable for small kitchens, dormitories, camping, and outdoor activities.
  • Pain Studies: Hot plate stirrers are utilized in research studies related to pain management and analgesic efficacy. These devices can generate controlled heat to induce pain, allowing researchers to observe and measure pain responses in experimental subjects.
  • Chemical Applications: In the mining and associated industries, hot plates are utilized to heat hazardous chemical samples. Special materials and protective coatings are used to ensure safe heating and handling of these substances. Hot plates provide a controlled and reliable heat source for various chemical processes and analyses.
  • Electronics Manufacturing: Hot plates are used in electronics manufacturing for soldering and desoldering components onto circuit boards. The precise temperature control of hot plate stirrers ensures proper soldering and rework of electronic components, helping to create reliable connections and assemblies.

Hot plate stirrers are valued for their versatility, reliability, and ease of use in a wide range of applications. Whether in research laboratories, kitchens, pain studies, chemical industries, or electronics manufacturing, these devices provide efficient heating and stirring capabilities. It is important to follow safety guidelines and manufacturer instructions when using hot plate stirrers to ensure proper operation and prevent accidents or mishaps.

Advantages of Hot Plate Stirrer

Hot plate stirrers offer several advantages that make them valuable tools in laboratory and other applications. Here are some key advantages of hot plate stirrers:

  • Affordability: Hot plate stirrers are relatively affordable compared to other heating and stirring equipment used in laboratories. They provide a cost-effective solution for various heating and stirring needs, making them accessible to a wide range of users.
  • Portability: Hot plate stirrers are designed to be portable, allowing for easy movement and placement in different laboratory settings. Their compact size and lightweight nature make them convenient for fieldwork, mobile laboratories, and areas with limited space.
  • Versatile Laboratory Processes: Hot plate stirrers enable several vital laboratory processes, including heating, stirring, and the combination of both. They are widely used in scientific research, chemistry, biology, and other disciplines that require controlled heating and mixing of substances.
  • Ease of Use: Hot plate stirrers are known for their user-friendly design and ease of operation. They typically feature simple controls for adjusting temperature and stirring speed, making them accessible to both experienced researchers and students.
  • Durability: Hot plate stirrers have a robust construction and are less susceptible to wear and tear. Unlike mechanical stirrers that have moving parts, hot plate stirrers do not rely on mechanical components for stirring, reducing the chances of mechanical failures and maintenance issues.
  • Efficiency and Quiet Operation: Hot plate stirrers are known for their efficiency in heating and stirring processes. They provide uniform heat distribution and effective mixing, contributing to accurate and reliable results. Additionally, hot plate stirrers operate quietly compared to mechanical stirrers, minimizing noise disturbance in the laboratory.

Disadvantages of Hot Plate Stirrer

While hot plate stirrers offer many advantages, there are also some disadvantages associated with their use. These disadvantages should be considered when selecting the appropriate equipment for specific laboratory needs. Here are some common disadvantages of hot plate stirrers:

  1. Cost: Hot plate stirrers can be more expensive than purchasing separate hot plates and stirrers, especially if they have advanced features such as temperature control and digital displays. The added functionalities may increase the overall cost of the equipment.
  2. Size: Hot plate stirrers tend to be larger and bulkier compared to separate hot plates and stirrers. This can be a limitation in laboratories with limited space, where finding adequate benchtop or storage space for the equipment may be challenging.
  3. Complexity: Some hot plate stirrers come with advanced controls and features that may be more sophisticated and complex to operate. This can pose a challenge for users who are not familiar with the equipment or require a simpler setup for their specific needs.
  4. Limited Stirring Capacity: Certain hot plate stirrers have a restricted stirring capacity, especially when designed for use with small containers such as test tubes. This can limit their applicability for experiments that require larger volumes or higher agitation levels.
  5. Limited Temperature Range: The temperature range of a hot plate stirrer may be limited compared to separate hot plates. This can be a constraint when working with specific temperature-sensitive materials or applications that require a wider range of heating capabilities.
  6. Safety Risks: Hot plate stirrers can present safety hazards if not used properly. The high temperatures involved can lead to burns, and improper handling or electrical faults can result in fires or electrical shocks. It is crucial to follow safety guidelines and take necessary precautions when operating hot plate stirrers to mitigate these risks.

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FAQ

What is a laboratory hot plate?

A laboratory hot plate is a device used to heat substances or materials in a controlled manner in a laboratory setting. It typically consists of a heating surface, temperature controls, and sometimes a magnetic stirrer.

How does a laboratory hot plate work?

A laboratory hot plate uses electric heating elements beneath a surface to generate heat. The heat is then transferred to the objects or substances placed on the surface, allowing them to reach the desired temperature.

What are the common applications of a laboratory hot plate?

Laboratory hot plates are commonly used in various applications, including heating solutions, warming glassware, melting or evaporating samples, conducting experiments, and conducting chemical reactions that require controlled heating.

How do I select the right hot plate for my laboratory needs?

When selecting a hot plate, consider factors such as the required temperature range, heating capacity, stirrer capability, surface material compatibility, safety features, and the specific applications you intend to use it for.

Can I use a laboratory hot plate for flammable materials?

When working with flammable materials, it is crucial to ensure that the hot plate is designed to be used safely in such situations. Look for features like explosion-proof construction, spark-free operation, and compatibility with fume hoods for proper ventilation.

How do I clean a laboratory hot plate?

To clean a hot plate, allow it to cool down completely before wiping the surface with a damp cloth or using mild detergent if necessary. Avoid using abrasive cleaners or submerging the hot plate in water to prevent damage.

Can I adjust the temperature on a laboratory hot plate?

Most laboratory hot plates have adjustable temperature controls, allowing you to set and maintain specific temperatures based on your experimental requirements.

Is it safe to leave a laboratory hot plate unattended?

It is generally recommended not to leave a hot plate unattended, especially when heating volatile or flammable substances. Always follow safety protocols and guidelines provided by the manufacturer.

Can I use a laboratory hot plate for biological samples?

Yes, laboratory hot plates can be used for heating biological samples, but it is essential to ensure that the hot plate is compatible with the specific requirements of your biological samples and follow appropriate protocols to maintain sample integrity.

How can I ensure the safety of using a laboratory hot plate?

To ensure safety, always follow the manufacturer’s instructions, use appropriate protective equipment (such as heat-resistant gloves), avoid overloading the hot plate, keep flammable materials away, and be cautious when handling hot surfaces or substances. Regularly inspect and maintain the hot plate to ensure proper functioning and safety.

References

  • https://studiousguy.com/hot-plate-stirrer/
  • https://bionicsscientific.com/hot-plate-stirrer/laboratory-hot-plate.html
  • https://conductscience.com/laboratory-hot-plates/
  • https://www.mrclab.com/types-of-laboratory-hot-plates
  • https://research.wayne.edu/oehs/pdf/factsheet-hot-plate.pdf
  • https://conductscience.com/laboratory-hot-plates/
  • https://chem.wisc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/1130/2019/12/HotPlateSafety.pdf
  • https://neuationcentrifuges.wordpress.com/tag/what-is-hot-plate-used-for/
  • https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ed050p137
  • https://microbenotes.com/hot-plate-principle-parts-procedure-types-uses-examples/#advantages-of-hot-plate
  • https://www.laboratory-equipment.com/blog/hot-plate-comparison-for-digital-analog-magnetic-stirring-plates/#:~:text=Laboratory%20hot%20plates%20consist%20of,a%20digital%20or%20analog%20controller.
  • https://lnf-wiki.eecs.umich.edu/wiki/Hot_Plate_Ettiquette
  • https://www.nist.gov/system/files/documents/ncnr/Corning-Digital-Hot-Plate.pdf

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