Choice Based Credit System UGC B.sc. Botany Honours Syllabus

Structure of B.Sc. Honours Botany under CBCS

Course Category	Courses
Core Courses	1. Algae and Microbiology
	2. Biomolecules and Cell Biology
	3. Mycology and Phytopathology
	4. Archegoniate
	5. Morphology and Anatomy
	6. Economic Botany
	7. Genetics
	8. Molecular Biology
	9. Plant Ecology and Phytogeography
	10. Plant Systematics
	11. Reproductive Biology of Angiosperms
	12. Plant Physiology
	13. Plant Metabolism
	14. Plant Biotechnology
Discipline Specific Electives	1. Analytical Techniques in Plant Sciences
	2. Bioinformatics
	3. Stress Biology
	4. Plant Breeding
	5. Natural Resource Management
	6. Horticultural Practices and Post-Harvest Technology
	7. Research Methodology
	8. Industrial and Environmental Microbiology
	9. Biostatistics
Generic Electives	1. Biodiversity (Microbes, Algae, Fungi and Archegoniate)
	2. Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
	3. Plant Anatomy and Embryology
	4. Plant Physiology and Metabolism
	5. Economic Botany and Biotechnology
	6. Environmental Biotechnology
Ability Enhancement Course Compulsory	1. Environmental Science
	2. English/MIL Communication
Ability Enhancement Courses Elective	1. Biofertilizers
	2. Herbal Technology
	3. Nursery and Gardening
	4. Floriculture
	5. Medicinal Botany
	6. Plant Diversity and Human Welfare
	7. Ethnobotany
	8. Mushroom Culture Technology
	9. Intellectual Property Rights

Core Course

Semester-I

Core Course I: Phycology and Microbiology

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Introduction to Microbial World	Microbial nutrition, growth and metabolism. Economic importance of viruses with reference to vaccine production, role in research, medicine and diagnostics, and as causal organisms of plant diseases. Economic importance of bacteria with reference to their role in agriculture and industry (fermentation and medicine).
Unit 2: Viruses	Discovery, physiochemical and biological characteristics; classification (Baltimore), general structure with special reference to viroids and prions; replication (general account), DNA virus (T-phage), lytic and lysogenic cycle; RNA virus (TMV).
Unit 3: Bacteria	Discovery, general characteristics; Types – archaebacteria, eubacteria, wall-less forms (mycoplasma and spheroplasts); cell structure; nutritional types; reproduction – vegetative, asexual and recombination (conjugation, transformation and transduction).
Unit 4: Algae	General characteristics; ecology and distribution; range of thallus organization; cell structure and components; cell wall, pigment system, reserve food (of only groups represented in the syllabus), flagella; methods of reproduction; classification; criteria, system of Fritsch, and evolutionary classification of Lee (only up to groups); significant contributions of important phycologists (F.E. Fritsch, G.M. Smith, R.N. Singh, T.V. Desikachary, H.D. Kumar, M.O.P. Iyengar). Role of algae in the environment, agriculture, biotechnology and industry.
Unit 5: Cyanophyta and Xanthophyta	Ecology and occurrence; range of thallus organization; cell structure; reproduction, morphology and life-cycle of Nostoc and Vaucheria.
Unit 6: Chlorophyta and Charophyta	General characteristics; occurrence; range of thallus organization; cell structure; reproduction; morphology and life-cycles of Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Oedogonium, Coleochaete, Chara; evolutionary significance of Prochloron.
Unit 7: Phaeophyta and Rhodophyta	Characteristics; occurrence; range of thallus organization; cell structure; reproduction; morphology and life-cycles of Ectocarpus, Fucus, and Polysiphonia.

Core Course II: Biomolecules and Cell Biology

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Biomolecules (20 lectures)	Types and significance of chemical bonds; structure and properties of water; pH and buffers. Carbohydrates: Nomenclature and classification; monosaccharides; disaccharides; oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Lipids: Definition and major classes of storage and structural lipids; fatty acids structure and functions; essential fatty acids; triacylglycerols structure, functions and properties; phosphoglycerides. Proteins: Structure of amino acids; levels of protein structure – primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary; protein denaturation and biological roles of proteins. Nucleic Acids: Structure of nitrogenous bases; structure and function of nucleotides; types of nucleic acids; structure of A, B, Z types of DNA; types of RNA; structure of tRNA.
Unit 2: Bioenergetics (4 lectures)	Laws of thermodynamics; concept of free energy; endergonic and exergonic reactions; coupled reactions; redox reactions. ATP: Structure and its role as an energy currency molecule.
Unit 3: Enzymes (6 lectures)	Structure of enzyme: holoenzyme, apoenzyme, cofactors, coenzymes, and prosthetic groups; classification of enzymes; features of active site; substrate specificity; mechanism of action (activation energy, lock and key hypothesis, induced-fit theory); Michaelis–Menten equation; enzyme inhibition and factors affecting enzyme activity.
Unit 4: The Cell (4 lectures)	Cell as a unit of structure and function; characteristics of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells; origin of eukaryotic cell (endosymbiotic theory).
Unit 5: Cell Wall and Plasma Membrane (4 lectures)	Chemistry, structure, and function of plant cell wall. Overview of membrane function; fluid mosaic model; chemical composition of membranes; membrane transport – passive, active, and facilitated transport; endocytosis and exocytosis.
Unit 6: Cell Organelles (16 lectures)	Nucleus: Structure – nuclear envelope, nuclear pore complex, nuclear lamina, molecular organization of chromatin; nucleolus. Cytoskeleton: Role and structure of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediary filaments. Chloroplast, Mitochondria, and Peroxisomes: Structural organization; function; semiautonomous nature of mitochondria and chloroplast. Endomembrane System: Endoplasmic Reticulum – structure, targeting and insertion of proteins in the ER, protein folding, processing; smooth ER and lipid synthesis; export of proteins and lipids; Golgi Apparatus – organization, protein glycosylation, protein sorting, and export from Golgi Apparatus; lysosomes.
Unit 7: Cell Division (6 lectures)	Phases of the eukaryotic cell cycle; mitosis and meiosis; regulation of the cell cycle – checkpoints, role of protein kinases.

Semester-II

Core Course III: Mycology and Phytopathology

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Introduction to True Fungi (6 lectures)	General characteristics; affinities with plants and animals; thallus organization; cell wall composition; nutrition; classification.
Unit 2: Chytridiomycota and Zygomycota (5 lectures)	Characteristic features; ecology and significance; thallus organization; reproduction; life cycle with reference to Synchytrium and Rhizopus.
Unit 3: Ascomycota (10 lectures)	General characteristics (asexual and sexual fruiting bodies); ecology; life cycle; heterokaryosis and parasexuality; life cycle and classification with reference to Saccharomyces, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Alternaria, Neurospora, and Peziza.
Unit 4: Basidiomycota (8 lectures)	General characteristics; ecology; life cycle and classification with reference to black stem rust on wheat (Puccinia – physiological specialization), loose and covered smut (symptoms only), Agaricus; bioluminescence, fairy rings, and mushroom cultivation.
Unit 5: Allied Fungi (3 lectures)	General characteristics; status of slime molds; classification; occurrence; types of plasmodia; types of fruiting bodies.
Unit 6: Oomycota (4 lectures)	General characteristics; ecology; life cycle and classification with reference to Phytophthora and Albugo.
Unit 7: Symbiotic Associations (4 lectures)	Lichens – occurrence; general characteristics; growth forms and range of thallus organization; nature of associations of algal and fungal partners; reproduction; mycorrhiza – ectomycorrhiza, endomycorrhiza and their significance.
Unit 8: Applied Mycology (10 lectures)	Role of fungi in biotechnology; application of fungi in food industry (flavour and texture, fermentation, baking, organic acids, enzymes, mycoproteins); secondary metabolites (pharmaceutical preparations); agriculture (biofertilizers); mycotoxins; biological control (mycofungicides, mycoherbicides, mycoinsecticides, myconematicides); medical mycology.
Unit 9: Phytopathology (10 lectures)	Terms and concepts; general symptoms; geographical distribution of diseases; etiology; symptomology; host-pathogen relationships; disease cycle and environmental relation; prevention and control of plant diseases, and role of quarantine. Bacterial diseases – citrus canker and angular leaf spot of cotton; viral diseases – tobacco mosaic viruses, vein clearing; fungal diseases – early blight of potato, black stem rust of wheat, white rust of crucifers.

Core Course IV: Archegoniate

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Introduction (4 lectures)	Unifying features of archegoniates; transition to land habit; alternation of generations.
Unit 2: Bryophytes (6 lectures)	General characteristics; adaptations to land habit; classification; range of thallus organization.
Unit 3: Type Studies – Bryophytes (12 lectures)	Classification (up to family), morphology, anatomy, and reproduction of Riccia, Marchantia, Pellia, Porella, Anthoceros, Sphagnum, and Funaria; reproduction and evolutionary trends in Riccia, Marchantia, Anthoceros, and Funaria (developmental stages not included). Ecological and economic importance of bryophytes with special reference to Sphagnum.
Unit 4: Pteridophytes (6 lectures)	General characteristics; classification; early land plants (Cooksonia and Rhynia).
Unit 5: Type Studies – Pteridophytes (14 lectures)	Classification (up to family), morphology, anatomy, and reproduction of Psilotum, Selaginella, Equisetum, and Pteris (developmental details not to be included); apogamy, apospory, heterospory, and seed habit; telome theory; stelar evolution; ecological and economic importance.
Unit 6: Gymnosperms (18 lectures)	General characteristics; classification (up to family); morphology, anatomy, and reproduction of Cycas, Pinus, and Gnetum (developmental details not to be included); ecological and economic importance.

Semester-III

Core Course V: Anatomy of Angiosperms

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Introduction and Scope of Plant Anatomy (4 Lectures)	Applications in systematics, forensics, and pharmacognosy.
Unit 2: Structure and Development of Plant Body (6 Lectures)	Internal organization of plant body: the three tissue systems, types of cells and tissues. Development of plant body: polarity, cytodifferentiation, and organogenesis during embryogenic development.
Unit 3: Tissues (12 Lectures)	Classification of tissues; simple and complex tissues (no phylogeny); cytodifferentiation of tracheary elements and sieve elements; pits and plasmodesmata; wall ingrowths and transfer cells; adcrustation and incrustation; ergastic substances; hydathodes, cavities, lithocysts, and laticifers.
Unit 4: Apical Meristems (15 Lectures)	Evolution of the concept of organization of shoot apex (apical cell theory, histogen theory, tunica corpus theory, continuing meristematic residue, cytohistological zonation); types of vascular bundles; structure of dicot and monocot stem; origin, development, arrangement, and diversity in size and shape of leaves; structure of dicot and monocot leaf; Kranz anatomy; organization of root apex (apical cell theory, histogen theory, Korper-Kappe theory); quiescent centre; root cap; structure of dicot and monocot root; endodermis, exodermis, and origin of lateral root.
Unit 5: Vascular Cambium and Wood (15 Lectures)	Structure, function, and seasonal activity of cambium; secondary growth in root and stem; axially and radially oriented elements; types of rays and axial parenchyma; cyclic aspects and reaction wood; sapwood and heartwood; ring and diffuse porous wood; early and late wood; tyloses; dendrochronology; development and composition of periderm, rhytidome, and lenticels.
Unit 6: Adaptive and Protective Systems (8 Lectures)	Epidermal tissue system; cuticle; epicuticular waxes; trichomes (uni- and multicellular, glandular and nonglandular, two examples of each); stomata (classification); adcrustation and incrustation; anatomical adaptations of xerophytes and hydrophytes.

Core Course VI: Economic Botany

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Origin of Cultivated Plants (6 lectures)	Concept of Centres of Origin; their importance with reference to Vavilov’s work; examples of major plant introductions; crop domestication and loss of genetic diversity; evolution of new crops/varieties; importance of germplasm diversity.
Unit 2: Cereals (6 lectures)	Wheat and rice (origin, morphology, processing, and uses); brief account of millets.
Unit 3: Legumes (6 lectures)	Origin, morphology, and uses of chickpea, pigeon pea, and fodder legumes; importance to man and ecosystem.
Unit 4: Sources of Sugars and Starches (4 lectures)	Morphology and processing of sugarcane; products and by-products of the sugarcane industry; potato (morphology, propagation, and uses).
Unit 5: Spices (6 lectures)	Listing of important spices, their family, and part used; economic importance with special reference to fennel, saffron, clove, and black pepper.
Unit 6: Beverages (4 lectures)	Tea and coffee (morphology, processing, and uses).
Unit 7: Sources of Oils and Fats (10 lectures)	General description, classification, extraction, uses, and health implications of groundnut, coconut, linseed, soybean, mustard, and coconut (botanical name, family, and uses); essential oils: general account, extraction methods, comparison with fatty oils, and their uses.
Unit 8: Natural Rubber (3 lectures)	Para-rubber: tapping, processing, and uses.
Unit 9: Drug-Yielding Plants (8 lectures)	Therapeutic and habit-forming drugs with special reference to cinchona, digitalis, papaver, and cannabis; tobacco (morphology, processing, uses, and health hazards).
Unit 10: Timber Plants (3 lectures)	General account with special reference to teak and pine.
Unit 11: Fibers (4 lectures)	Classification based on the origin of fibers; cotton, coir, and jute (morphology, extraction, and uses).

Core Course VII: Genetics

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Mendelian Genetics and Its Extension (16 lectures)	Mendelism: history; principles of inheritance; chromosome theory of inheritance; autosomes and sex chromosomes; probability and pedigree analysis; incomplete dominance and codominance; multiple alleles, lethal alleles, epistasis, pleiotropy, recessive and dominant traits, penetrance and expressivity; numericals; polygenic inheritance.
Unit 2: Extrachromosomal Inheritance (6 lectures)	Chloroplast mutation: variegation in Four O’clock plant; mitochondrial mutations in yeast; maternal effects: shell coiling in snail; infective heredity: Kappa particles in Paramecium.
Unit 3: Linkage, Crossing Over and Chromosome Mapping (12 lectures)	Linkage and crossing over: cytological basis of crossing over; recombination frequency, two-factor and three-factor crosses; interference and coincidence; numericals based on gene mapping; sex linkage.
Unit 4: Variation in Chromosome Number and Structure (8 lectures)	Deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation, position effect, euploidy, and aneuploidy.
Unit 5: Gene Mutations (6 lectures)	Types of mutations; molecular basis of mutations; mutagens – physical and chemical (base analogs, deaminating, alkylating, and intercalating agents); detection of mutations: ClB method; role of transposons in mutation; DNA repair mechanisms.
Unit 6: Fine Structure of Gene (6 lectures)	Classical vs. molecular concepts of gene; cis-trans complementation test for functional allelism; structure of phage T4, rII locus.
Unit 7: Population and Evolutionary Genetics (6 lectures)	Allele frequencies; genotype frequencies; Hardy-Weinberg Law; role of natural selection, mutation, and genetic drift; genetic variation and speciation.

Semester-IV

Core Course VIII: Molecular Biology

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Nucleic Acids: Carriers of Genetic Information (4 lectures)	Historical perspective; DNA as the carrier of genetic information (Griffith’s experiment, Hershey & Chase, Avery, McLeod & McCarty, Fraenkel-Conrat’s experiment).
Unit 2: The Structures of DNA and RNA / Genetic Material (10 lectures)	DNA Structure: Miescher to Watson and Crick – historic perspective; DNA structure, salient features of double helix, types of DNA, types of genetic material, denaturation and renaturation, cot curves; organization of DNA in prokaryotes, viruses, and eukaryotes; RNA structure; organelle DNA – mitochondria and chloroplast DNA; the nucleosome; chromatin structure – euchromatin, heterochromatin (constitutive and facultative heterochromatin).
Unit 3: The Replication of DNA (10 lectures)	Chemistry of DNA synthesis (Kornberg’s discovery); general principles – bidirectional, semiconservative, and semi-discontinuous replication, RNA priming; various models of DNA replication, including rolling circle, θ (theta) mode of replication, replication of linear ds-DNA, replication of the 5’ end of linear chromosome; enzymes involved in DNA replication.
Unit 4: Central Dogma and Genetic Code (2 lectures)	Key experiments establishing the Central Dogma (Adaptor hypothesis and discovery of mRNA template); genetic code (deciphering and salient features).
Unit 5: Transcription (18 lectures)	Transcription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes; principles of transcriptional regulation; prokaryotes: regulation of lactose metabolism and tryptophan synthesis in E. coli; eukaryotes: transcription factors, heat shock proteins, steroids, and peptide hormones; gene silencing.
Unit 6: Processing and Modification of RNA (8 lectures)	Split genes – concept of introns and exons, removal of introns, spliceosome machinery, splicing pathways, group I and group II intron splicing; alternative splicing; eukaryotic mRNA processing (5’ cap, 3’ polyA tail); ribozymes; RNA editing and mRNA transport.
Unit 7: Translation (8 lectures)	Ribosome structure and assembly, mRNA; charging of tRNA, aminoacyl tRNA synthetases; various steps in protein synthesis, proteins involved in initiation, elongation, and termination of polypeptides; fidelity of translation; inhibitors of protein synthesis; post-translational modifications of proteins.

Core Course IX: Plant Ecology and Phytogeography

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Introduction (4 lectures)	Basic concepts; levels of organization; inter-relationships between the living world and the environment; components and dynamism; homeostasis.
Unit 2: Soil (8 lectures)	Importance; origin; formation; composition; physical, chemical, and biological components; soil profile; role of climate in soil development.
Unit 3: Water (4 lectures)	Importance; states of water in the environment; atmospheric moisture; types of precipitation (rain, fog, snow, hail, dew); hydrological cycle; water in soil; water table.
Unit 4: Light, Temperature, Wind, and Fire (6 lectures)	Variations; adaptations of plants to their variation.
Unit 5: Biotic Interactions (2 lectures)	Trophic organization; basic source of energy; autotrophy; heterotrophy; symbiosis; commensalism; parasitism; food chains and webs; ecological pyramids; biomass; standing crop.
Unit 6: Population Ecology (4 lectures)	Characteristics and dynamics; ecological speciation.
Unit 7: Plant Communities (8 lectures)	Concept of ecological amplitude; habitat and niche; characters: analytical and synthetic; ecotone and edge effect; dynamics: succession – processes, types; climax concepts.
Unit 8: Ecosystems (4 lectures)	Structure; processes; trophic organization; food chains and food webs; ecological pyramids.
Unit 9: Functional Aspects of Ecosystem (8 lectures)	Principles and models of energy flow; production and productivity; ecological efficiencies; biogeochemical cycles; cycling of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
Unit 10: Phytogeography	Principles; continental drift; theory of tolerance; endemism; brief description of major terrestrial biomes (one each from tropical, temperate, and tundra); phytogeographical division of India; local vegetation.

Core Course X: Plant Systematics

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Significance of Plant Systematics (12 lectures)	Introduction to systematics; plant identification, classification, nomenclature; evidences from palynology, cytology, phytochemistry, and molecular data; field inventory; functions of herbarium; important herbaria and botanical gardens of the world and India; virtual herbarium; E-flora; documentation: flora, monographs, journals; keys: single access and multi-access.
Unit 2: Taxonomic Hierarchy (6 lectures)	Concept of taxa (family, genus, species); categories and taxonomic hierarchy; species concept (taxonomic, biological, evolutionary).
Unit 3: Botanical Nomenclature (10 lectures)	Principles and rules (ICN); ranks and names; typification; author citation; valid publication; rejection of names; principle of priority and its limitations; names of hybrids.
Unit 4: Systems of Classification (12 lectures)	Major contributions of Theophrastus, Bauhin, Tournefort, Linnaeus, Adanson, de Candolle, Bessey, Hutchinson, Takhtajan, and Cronquist; classification systems of Bentham and Hooker (up to series) and Engler and Prantl (up to series); brief reference of Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG III) classification.
Unit 5: Biometrics, Numerical Taxonomy, and Cladistics (10 lectures)	Characters; variations; OTUs; character weighting and coding; cluster analysis; phenograms; cladograms (definitions and differences).
Unit 6: Phylogeny of Angiosperms (12 lectures)	Terms and concepts (primitive and advanced, homology and analogy, parallelism and convergence, monophyly, paraphyly, polyphyly, and clades); origin and evolution of angiosperms; co-evolution of angiosperms and animals; methods of illustrating evolutionary relationships (phylogenetic tree, cladogram).

Semester-V

Core Course XI: Reproductive Biology of Angiosperms

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Introduction (4 lectures)	History (contributions of G.B. Amici, W. Hofmeister, E. Strasburger, S.G. Nawaschin, P. Maheshwari, B.M. Johri, W.A. Jensen, J. Heslop-Harrison) and scope.
Unit 2: Reproductive Development (6 lectures)	Induction of flowering; flower as a modified determinate shoot; flower development: genetic and molecular aspects.
Unit 3: Anther and Pollen Biology (10 lectures)	Anther wall: structure and functions; microsporogenesis; callose deposition and its significance; microgametogenesis; pollen wall structure; MGU (male germ unit) structure; NPC system; palynology and scope; pollen wall proteins; pollen viability, storage and germination; abnormal features: pseudomonads, polyads, massulae, pollinia.
Unit 4: Ovule (10 lectures)	Structure; types; special structures (endothelium, obturator, aril, caruncle, hypostase); female gametophyte: megasporogenesis (monosporic, bisporic, tetrasporic) and megagametogenesis (details of Polygonum type); organization and ultrastructure of mature embryo sac.
Unit 5: Pollination and Fertilization (6 lectures)	Pollination types and significance; adaptations; structure of stigma and style; path of pollen tube in pistil; double fertilization.
Unit 6: Self Incompatibility (10 lectures)	Basic concepts (interspecific, intraspecific, homomorphic, heteromorphic, GSI, and SSI); methods to overcome self-incompatibility: mixed pollination, bud pollination, stub pollination; intra-ovarian and in vitro pollination; modification of stigma surface; parasexual hybridization; cybrids; in vitro fertilization.
Unit 7: Embryo, Endosperm and Seed (10 lectures)	Structure and types; general pattern of development of dicot and monocot embryo and endosperm; suspensor: structure and functions; embryo-endosperm relationship; nutrition of embryo; unusual features; embryo development in Paeonia; seed structure, importance, and dispersal mechanisms.
Unit 8: Polyembryony and Apomixis (6 lectures)	Introduction; classification; causes and applications.

Core Course XII: Plant Physiology

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Plant-Water Relations (10 lectures)	Water potential and its components; water absorption by roots; aquaporins; pathway of water movement; symplast, apoplast, transmembrane pathways; root pressure; guttation; ascent of sap; cohesion-tension theory; transpiration and factors affecting transpiration; antitranspirants; mechanism of stomatal movement.
Unit 2: Mineral Nutrition (8 lectures)	Essential and beneficial elements; macro and micronutrients; methods of study and use of nutrient solutions; criteria for essentiality; mineral deficiency symptoms; roles of essential elements; chelating agents.
Unit 3: Nutrient Uptake (8 lectures)	Soil as a nutrient reservoir; transport of ions across cell membrane; passive absorption; electrochemical gradient; facilitated diffusion; active absorption; role of ATP; carrier systems; proton ATPase pump and ion flux; uniport, co-transport, symport, antiport.
Unit 4: Translocation in the Phloem (8 lectures)	Experimental evidence in support of phloem as the site of sugar translocation; pressure-flow model; phloem loading and unloading; source-sink relationship.
Unit 5: Plant Growth Regulators (14 lectures)	Discovery; chemical nature (basic structure); bioassay; physiological roles of auxin, gibberellins, cytokinin, abscisic acid, ethylene, brassinosteroids, and jasmonic acid.
Unit 6: Physiology of Flowering (6 lectures)	Photoperiodism; flowering stimulus; florigen concept; vernalization; seed dormancy.
Unit 7: Phytochrome, Cryptochromes, and Phototropins (6 lectures)	Discovery; chemical nature; role in photomorphogenesis; low energy responses (LER) and high irradiance responses (HIR); mode of action.

Semester-VI

Core Course XIII: Plant Metabolism

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Concept of Metabolism (6 lectures)	Introduction to metabolism; anabolic and catabolic pathways; regulation of metabolism; role of regulatory enzymes (allosteric, covalent modulation, and isozymes).
Unit 2: Carbon Assimilation (14 lectures)	Historical background; photosynthetic pigments (chlorophylls and accessory pigments); role of photosynthetic pigments; antenna molecules and reaction centers; photochemical reactions; photosynthetic electron transport; PSI, PSII, Q cycle; CO2 reduction; photorespiration; C4 pathways; Crassulacean acid metabolism; factors affecting CO2 reduction.
Unit 3: Carbohydrate Metabolism (2 lectures)	Synthesis and catabolism of sucrose and starch.
Unit 4: Carbon Oxidation (10 lectures)	Glycolysis; fate of pyruvate; regulation of glycolysis; oxidative pentose phosphate pathway; oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate; regulation of PDH; NADH shuttle; TCA cycle; amphibolic role; anaplerotic reactions; regulation of the cycle; mitochondrial electron transport; oxidative phosphorylation; cyanide-resistant respiration; factors affecting respiration.
Unit 5: ATP Synthesis (8 lectures)	Mechanism of ATP synthesis; substrate-level phosphorylation; chemiosmotic mechanism (oxidative and photophosphorylation); ATP synthase; Boyer’s conformational model; Racker’s experiment; Jagendorf’s experiment; role of uncouplers.
Unit 6: Lipid Metabolism (8 lectures)	Synthesis and breakdown of triglycerides; β-oxidation; glyoxylate cycle; gluconeogenesis and its role in the mobilization of lipids during seed germination; α-oxidation.
Unit 7: Nitrogen Metabolism (8 lectures)	Nitrate assimilation; biological nitrogen fixation (examples of legumes and non-legumes); physiology and biochemistry of nitrogen fixation; ammonia assimilation; transamination.
Unit 8: Mechanisms of Signal Transduction (4 lectures)	Receptor-ligand interactions; second messenger concept; calcium-calmodulin; MAP kinase cascade.

Core Course XIV: Plant Biotechnology

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Plant Tissue Culture (16 lectures)	Historical perspective; composition of media; nutrient and hormone requirements (role of vitamins and hormones); totipotency; organogenesis; embryogenesis (somatic and zygotic); protoplast isolation, culture, and fusion; tissue culture applications (micropropagation, androgenesis, virus elimination, secondary metabolite production, haploids, triploids, and hybrids); cryopreservation; germplasm conservation.
Unit 2: Recombinant DNA Technology (12 lectures)	Restriction endonucleases (history, types I-IV, biological role, and application); restriction mapping (linear and circular); cloning vectors: prokaryotic (pUC 18 and pUC 19, pBR322, Ti plasmid, BAC), lambda phage, M13 phagemid, cosmid, shuttle vector; eukaryotic vectors (YAC).
Unit 3: Gene Cloning (10 lectures)	Recombinant DNA; bacterial transformation and selection of recombinant clones; PCR-mediated gene cloning; gene construct; construction of genomic and cDNA libraries; screening DNA libraries to obtain gene of interest by genetic selection; complementation; colony hybridization; PCR.
Unit 4: Methods of Gene Transfer (8 lectures)	Agrobacterium-mediated; direct gene transfer by electroporation, microinjection, microprojectile bombardment; selection of transgenics—selectable marker and reporter genes (luciferase, GUS, GFP).
Unit 5: Applications of Biotechnology (14 lectures)	Pest-resistant (Bt-cotton); herbicide-resistant plants (RoundUp Ready soybean); transgenic crops with improved quality traits (Flavr Savr tomato, Golden rice); improved horticultural varieties (Moondust carnations); role of transgenics in bioremediation (superbug); edible vaccines; industrial enzymes (aspergillase, protease, lipase); genetically engineered products (human growth hormone, Humulin); biosafety concerns.

Discipline Specific Elective Courses

Analytical Techniques in Plant Sciences

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Imaging and Related Techniques (15 lectures)	Principles of microscopy; light microscopy; fluorescence microscopy; confocal microscopy; use of fluorochromes: (a) flow cytometry (FACS); (b) applications of fluorescence microscopy: chromosome banding, FISH, chromosome painting; transmission and scanning electron microscopy – sample preparation for electron microscopy, cryofixation, negative staining, shadow casting, freeze fracture, freeze etching.
Unit 2: Cell Fractionation (8 lectures)	Centrifugation: differential and density gradient centrifugation, sucrose density gradient, CsCl2 gradient, analytical centrifugation, ultracentrifugation, marker enzymes.
Unit 3: Radioisotopes (4 lectures)	Use in biological research, autoradiography, pulse-chase experiment.
Unit 4: Spectrophotometry (4 lectures)	Principle and its application in biological research.
Unit 5: Chromatography (8 lectures)	Principle; paper chromatography; column chromatography; TLC; GLC; HPLC; ion-exchange chromatography; molecular sieve chromatography; affinity chromatography.
Unit 6: Characterization of Proteins and Nucleic Acids (6 lectures)	Mass spectrometry; X-ray diffraction; X-ray crystallography; characterization of proteins and nucleic acids; electrophoresis: AGE, PAGE, SDS-PAGE.
Unit 7: Biostatistics (15 lectures)	Statistics, data, population, samples, parameters; representation of data: tabular, graphical; measures of central tendency: arithmetic mean, mode, median; measures of dispersion: range, mean deviation, variation, standard deviation; chi-square test for goodness of fit.

Bioinformatics

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Introduction to Bioinformatics (5 Lectures)	Introduction, branches of bioinformatics, aim, scope, and research areas of bioinformatics.
Unit 2: Databases in Bioinformatics (5 Lectures)	Introduction, biological databases, classification format of biological databases, biological database retrieval system.
Unit 3: Biological Sequence Databases (25 Lectures)	National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI): tools and databases of NCBI, database retrieval tool, sequence submission to NCBI, Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST), nucleotide database, protein database, gene expression database. EMBL Nucleotide Sequence Database (EMBL-Bank): introduction, sequence retrieval, sequence submission to EMBL, sequence analysis tools. DNA Data Bank of Japan (DDBJ): introduction, resources at DDBJ, data submission at DDBJ. Protein Information Resource (PIR): about PIR, resources of PIR, databases of PIR, data retrieval in PIR. Swiss-Prot: introduction and salient features.
Unit 4: Sequence Alignments (10 Lectures)	Introduction, concept of alignment, multiple sequence alignment (MSA), MSA by CLUSTALW, scoring matrices, percent accepted mutation (PAM), blocks of amino acid substitution matrix (BLOSUM).
Unit 5: Molecular Phylogeny (8 Lectures)	Methods of phylogeny, software for phylogenetic analyses, consistency of molecular phylogenetic prediction.
Unit 6: Applications of Bioinformatics (7 Lectures)	Structural bioinformatics in drug discovery, quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) techniques in drug design, microbial genome applications, crop improvement.

Stress Biology

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Defining Plant Stress (2 Lectures)	Acclimation and adaptation.
Unit 2: Environmental Factors (20 Lectures)	Water stress; salinity stress; high light stress; temperature stress; hypersensitive reaction; pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins; systemic acquired resistance; mediation of insect and disease resistance by jasmonates.
Unit 3: Stress Sensing Mechanisms in Plants (20 Lectures)	Calcium modulation; phospholipid signaling.
Unit 4: Developmental and Physiological Mechanisms that Protect Plants Against Environmental Stress (12 Lectures)	Adaptation in plants; changes in root: shoot ratio; aerenchyma development; osmotic adjustment; compatible solute production.
Unit 5: Reactive Oxygen Species (6 Lectures)	Production and scavenging mechanisms.

Plant Breeding

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Plant Breeding (10 Lectures)	Introduction and objectives; breeding systems; modes of reproduction in crop plants; important achievements and undesirable consequences of plant breeding.
Unit 2: Methods of Crop Improvement (20 Lectures)	Introduction to centers of origin and domestication of crop plants; plant genetic resources; acclimatization; selection methods for self-pollinated, cross-pollinated, and vegetatively propagated plants; hybridization procedures, advantages, and limitations.
Unit 3: Quantitative Inheritance (10 Lectures)	Concept and mechanism; examples of inheritance of kernel color in wheat and skin color in humans; monogenic vs polygenic inheritance.
Unit 4: Inbreeding Depression and Heterosis (10 Lectures)	History; genetic basis of inbreeding depression and heterosis; applications.
Unit 5: Crop Improvement and Breeding (10 Lectures)	Role of mutations; polyploidy; distant hybridization; role of biotechnology in crop improvement.

Natural Resource Management

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Natural Resources (2 Lectures)	Definition and types of natural resources.
Unit 2: Sustainable Utilization (8 Lectures)	Concept of sustainable utilization; approaches including economic, ecological, and socio-cultural.
Unit 3: Land (8 Lectures)	Utilization of land (agricultural, pastoral, horticultural, silvicultural); soil degradation and management strategies.
Unit 4: Water (8 Lectures)	Freshwater resources (rivers, lakes, groundwater, aquifers, watershed); marine, estuarine, and wetlands; threats to water resources and management strategies.
Unit 5: Biological Resources (12 Lectures)	Biodiversity: definition and types; significance; threats to biodiversity; management strategies; bioprospecting; intellectual property rights (IPR); Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD); National Biodiversity Action Plan.
Unit 6: Forests (6 Lectures)	Definition of forests; cover and its significance (with special reference to India); major and minor forest products; depletion of forest resources; management strategies.
Unit 7: Energy (6 Lectures)	Renewable and non-renewable sources of energy; implications for sustainable resource management.
Unit 8: Contemporary Practices in Resource Management (8 Lectures)	Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA); Geographic Information Systems (GIS); Participatory Resource Appraisal; ecological footprint (with emphasis on carbon footprint); resource accounting; waste management.
Unit 9: National and International Efforts in Resource Management and Conservation (8 Lectures)	Overview of efforts at both national and international levels to manage and conserve natural resources.

Horticultural Practices and Post-Harvest Technology

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Introduction (4 Lectures)	Scope and importance of horticulture; branches of horticulture; role in rural economy and employment generation; importance in food and nutritional security; urban horticulture and ecotourism.
Unit 2: Ornamental Plants (4 Lectures)	Types and classification (annuals, perennials, climbers, and trees); identification and salient features of ornamental plants (rose, marigold, gladiolus, carnations, orchids, poppies, gerberas, tuberose, sages, cacti, and succulents like Opuntia, Agave, and spurges); ornamental flowering trees (Indian laburnum, gulmohar, Jacaranda, Lagerstroemia, fishtail and areca palms, semul, coral tree).
Unit 3: Fruit and Vegetable Crops (4 Lectures)	Production, origin, and distribution of fruit and vegetable crops; description of plants and their economic products; management and marketing of vegetable and fruit crops; identification of some fruits and vegetable varieties (citrus, banana, mango, chilies, and cucurbits).
Unit 4: Horticultural Techniques (8 Lectures)	Application of manure, fertilizers, nutrients, and plant growth regulators (PGRs); weed control; biofertilizers, biopesticides; irrigation methods (drip irrigation, surface irrigation, furrow and border irrigation); hydroponics; propagation methods (asexual: grafting, cutting, layering, budding; sexual: seed propagation) – scope and limitations.
Unit 5: Landscaping and Garden Design (6 Lectures)	Planning and layout of parks and avenues; gardening traditions (Ancient Indian, European, Mughal, and Japanese gardens); urban forestry; policies and practices in landscaping.
Unit 6: Floriculture (6 Lectures)	Cut flowers, bonsai; commerce (market demand and supply); importance of flower shows and exhibitions.
Unit 7: Post-Harvest Technology (10 Lectures)	Importance of post-harvest technology in horticultural crops; evaluation of quality traits; harvesting and handling of fruits, vegetables, and cut flowers; principles and methods of preservation and processing; methods to minimize losses during storage and transportation; food irradiation (advantages and disadvantages); food safety.
Unit 8: Disease Control and Management (8 Lectures)	Field and post-harvest diseases; identification of deficiency symptoms; remedial measures and nutritional management practices; crop sanitation; Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies (genetic, biological, and chemical methods for pest control); quarantine practices; identification of common diseases and pests of ornamentals, fruits, and vegetable crops.
Unit 9: Horticultural Crops – Conservation and Management (10 Lectures)	Documentation and conservation of germplasm; role of micropropagation and tissue culture techniques; varieties and cultivars of various horticultural crops; intellectual property rights (IPR) issues; national, international, and professional societies; sources of information on horticulture.
Unit 10: Field Trip	Field visits to gardens, standing crop sites, nurseries, vegetable gardens, and horticultural fields at IARI or other suitable locations.

Research Methodology

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Basic Concepts of Research (10 Lectures)	Definition and types of research (descriptive vs analytical; applied vs fundamental; quantitative vs qualitative; conceptual vs empirical); research methods vs methodology; literature review and its consolidation; library research; field research; laboratory research.
Unit 2: General Laboratory Practices (12 Lectures)	Common calculations in botany laboratories; understanding the details on the label of reagent bottles; molarity and normality of common acids and bases; preparation of solutions; dilutions; percentage solutions; molar, molal, and normal solutions; technique of handling micropipettes; knowledge about common toxic chemicals and safety measures in their handling.
Unit 3: Data Collection and Documentation of Observations (6 Lectures)	Maintaining a laboratory record; tabulation and generation of graphs; imaging of tissue specimens and application of scale bars; the art of field photography.
Unit 4: Overview of Biological Problems (6 Lectures)	History; key biology research areas; model organisms in biology (a brief overview): genetics, physiology, biochemistry, molecular biology, cell biology, genomics, proteomics; transcriptional regulatory networks.
Unit 5: Methods to Study Plant Cell/Tissue Structure (6 Lectures)	Whole mounts, peel mounts, squash preparations, clearing, maceration, and sectioning; tissue preparation: living vs fixed, physical vs chemical fixation, coagulating fixatives, non-coagulant fixatives; tissue dehydration using graded solvent series; paraffin and plastic infiltration; preparation of thin and ultrathin sections.
Unit 6: Plant Microtechniques (12 Lectures)	Staining procedures, classification and chemistry of stains; staining equipment; reactive dyes and fluorochromes (including genetically engineered protein labeling with GFP and other tags); cytogenetic techniques with squashed plant materials.
Unit 7: The Art of Scientific Writing and Its Presentation (8 Lectures)	Numbers, units, abbreviations, and nomenclature used in scientific writing; writing references; PowerPoint presentation; poster presentation; scientific writing and ethics; introduction to copyright; academic misconduct/plagiarism.

Industrial and Environmental Microbiology

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Scope of Microbes in Industry and Environment (6 Lectures)	Introduction to the roles of microorganisms in various industrial processes and environmental applications.
Unit 2: Bioreactors/Fermenters and Fermentation Processes (12 Lectures)	Overview of solid-state and liquid-state fermentations (stationary and submerged); batch and continuous fermentations; components of a typical bioreactor; types of bioreactors (laboratory, pilot-scale, and production fermenters); constantly stirred tank fermenter, tower fermenter, fixed bed and fluidized bed bioreactors, and air-lift fermenter. A visit to an educational institute/industry to see an industrial fermenter and other downstream processing operations.
Unit 3: Microbial Production of Industrial Products (12 Lectures)	Microorganisms involved, media, fermentation conditions, downstream processing, and uses; methods of filtration, centrifugation, cell disruption, solvent extraction, precipitation, ultrafiltration, lyophilization, and spray drying; hands-on microbial fermentations for the production and estimation (qualitative and quantitative) of enzyme (amylase or lipase), organic acid (citric acid or glutamic acid), alcohol (ethanol), and antibiotic (penicillin).
Unit 4: Microbial Enzymes of Industrial Interest and Enzyme Immobilization (8 Lectures)	Overview of microorganisms for industrial applications; hands-on screening of microorganisms for casein hydrolysis, starch hydrolysis, and cellulose hydrolysis; methods of immobilization, advantages, and applications of immobilization; large-scale applications of immobilized enzymes (glucose isomerase and penicillin acylase).
Unit 5: Microbes and Quality of Environment (6 Lectures)	Distribution of microbes in air; isolation of microorganisms from soil, air, and water.
Unit 6: Microbial Flora of Water (8 Lectures)	Water pollution; role of microbes in sewage and domestic wastewater treatment systems; determination of BOD, COD, TDS, and TOC of water samples; microorganisms as indicators of water quality; checking coliform and fecal coliform in water samples.
Unit 7: Microbes in Agriculture and Remediation of Contaminated Soils (8 Lectures)	Biological fixation; mycorrhizae; bioremediation of contaminated soils; isolation of root-nodulating bacteria; arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization in plant roots.

Biostatistics

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Biostatistics (12 Lectures)	Definition of biostatistics; statistical methods; basic principles; variables; measurements; functions; limitations and uses of statistics.
Unit 2: Collection of Data (12 Lectures)	Primary and secondary data collection; types and methods of data collection procedures (merits and demerits); classification; tabulation; presentation of data; sampling methods.
Unit 3: Measures of Central Tendency (14 Lectures)	Mean, median, mode, geometric mean (merits and demerits); measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation, mean deviation, quartile deviation) – merits and demerits; coefficient of variations.
Unit 4: Correlation (12 Lectures)	Types and methods of correlation; regression; simple regression equation; fitting prediction; similarities and dissimilarities of correlation and regression.
Unit 5: Statistical Inference (10 Lectures)	Hypothesis; simple hypothesis; Student’s t-test; chi-square test.

Generic Electives

Biodiversity (Microbes, Algae, Fungi and Archegoniate)

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Microbes (10 Lectures)	Viruses: Discovery; general structure; replication (general account); DNA virus (T-phage); lytic and lysogenic cycle; RNA virus (TMV); economic importance. Bacteria: Discovery; general characteristics; cell structure; reproduction (vegetative, asexual, recombination: conjugation, transformation, transduction); economic importance.
Unit 2: Algae (12 Lectures)	General characteristics; ecology and distribution; range of thallus organization and reproduction; classification of algae; morphology and life cycles of Nostoc, Chlamydomonas, Oedogonium, Vaucheria, Fucus, Polysiphonia; economic importance of algae.
Unit 3: Fungi (12 Lectures)	Introduction; general characteristics; ecology and significance; range of thallus organization; cell wall composition; nutrition; reproduction; classification; True Fungi: general characteristics, ecology and significance; life cycles of Rhizopus (Zygomycota), Penicillium, Alternaria (Ascomycota), Puccinia, Agaricus (Basidiomycota); Symbiotic Associations: lichens (general account, reproduction, significance); mycorrhiza (ectomycorrhiza and endomycorrhiza and their significance).
Unit 4: Introduction to Archegoniate (2 Lectures)	Unifying features of archegoniates; transition to land habit; alternation of generations.
Unit 5: Bryophytes (10 Lectures)	General characteristics; adaptations to land habit; classification; range of thallus organization; morphology, anatomy, and reproduction of Marchantia and Funaria (developmental details not to be included); ecology and economic importance of bryophytes, with special mention of Sphagnum.
Unit 6: Pteridophytes (8 Lectures)	General characteristics; classification; early land plants (Cooksonia and Rhynia); morphology, anatomy, and reproduction of Selaginella, Equisetum, and Pteris (developmental details not to be included); heterospory and seed habit; stelar evolution; ecological and economical importance of Pteridophytes.
Unit 7: Gymnosperms (6 Lectures)	General characteristics; classification (up to family); morphology, anatomy, and reproduction of Cycas and Pinus (developmental details not to be included); ecological and economical importance.

Plant Ecology and Taxonomy

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Introduction (2 Lectures)	Overview of the subject matter.
Unit 2: Ecological Factors (10 Lectures)	Soil: Origin, formation, composition, soil profile. Water: States of water in the environment, types of precipitation. Light and Temperature: Variation, optimal and limiting factors; Shelford’s law of tolerance; adaptation of hydrophytes and xerophytes.
Unit 3: Plant Communities (6 Lectures)	Characteristics of plant communities; ecotone and edge effect; succession processes and types.
Unit 4: Ecosystem (8 Lectures)	Structure of ecosystems; energy flow and trophic organization; food chains and food webs; ecological pyramids; production and productivity; biogeochemical cycling (cycling of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus).
Unit 5: Phytogeography (4 Lectures)	Principle biogeographical zones; endemism.
Unit 6: Introduction to Plant Taxonomy (2 Lectures)	Identification, classification, and nomenclature of plants.
Unit 7: Identification (4 Lectures)	Functions of herbaria; important herbaria and botanical gardens in the world and India; documentation (flora, keys: single access and multi-access).
Unit 8: Taxonomic Evidences (6 Lectures)	Taxonomic evidences from palynology, cytology, phytochemistry, and molecular data.
Unit 9: Taxonomic Hierarchy (2 Lectures)	Ranks, categories, and taxonomic groups.
Unit 10: Botanical Nomenclature (6 Lectures)	Principles and rules (ICN); ranks and names; binomial system; typification; author citation; valid publication; rejection of names; principle of priority and its limitations.
Unit 11: Classification (6 Lectures)	Types of classification (artificial, natural, and phylogenetic); Bentham and Hooker (up to series); Engler and Prantl (up to series).
Unit 12: Biometrics, Numerical Taxonomy, and Cladistics (4 Lectures)	Characters; variations; OTUs; character weighting and coding; cluster analysis; definitions and differences between phenograms and cladograms.

Plant Anatomy and Embryology

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Meristematic and Permanent Tissues (8 Lectures)	Root and shoot apical meristems; simple and complex tissues.
Unit 2: Organs (4 Lectures)	Structure of dicot and monocot root, stem, and leaf.
Unit 3: Secondary Growth (8 Lectures)	Vascular cambium – structure and function; seasonal activity; secondary growth in root and stem; wood (heartwood and sapwood).
Unit 4: Adaptive and Protective Systems (8 Lectures)	Epidermis, cuticle, stomata; general adaptations in xerophytes and hydrophytes.
Unit 5: Structural Organization of Flower (8 Lectures)	Structure of anther and pollen; structure and types of ovules; types of embryo sacs; organization and ultrastructure of mature embryo sac.
Unit 6: Pollination and Fertilization (8 Lectures)	Pollination mechanisms and adaptations; double fertilization; seed structure, appendages, and dispersal mechanisms.
Unit 7: Embryo and Endosperm (8 Lectures)	Endosperm types, structure, and functions; dicot and monocot embryo; embryo-endosperm relationship.
Unit 8: Apomixis and Polyembryony (8 Lectures)	Definition, types, and practical applications.

Plant Physiology and Metabolism

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Plant-Water Relations (8 Lectures)	Importance of water; water potential and its components; transpiration and its significance; factors affecting transpiration; root pressure and guttation.
Unit 2: Mineral Nutrition (8 Lectures)	Essential elements, macro and micronutrients; criteria of essentiality of elements; role of essential elements; transport of ions across cell membrane, active and passive transport, carriers, channels, and pumps.
Unit 3: Translocation in Phloem (6 Lectures)	Composition of phloem sap; girdling experiment; pressure flow model; phloem loading and unloading.
Unit 4: Photosynthesis (12 Lectures)	Photosynthetic pigments (Chl a, b, xanthophylls, carotene); photosystem I and II, reaction center, antenna molecules; electron transport and mechanism of ATP synthesis; C3, C4, and CAM pathways of carbon fixation; photorespiration.
Unit 5: Respiration (6 Lectures)	Glycolysis; anaerobic respiration; TCA cycle; oxidative phosphorylation; glyoxylate; oxidative pentose phosphate pathway.
Unit 6: Enzymes (4 Lectures)	Structure and properties; mechanism of enzyme catalysis and enzyme inhibition.
Unit 7: Nitrogen Metabolism (4 Lectures)	Biological nitrogen fixation; nitrate and ammonia assimilation.
Unit 8: Plant Growth Regulators (6 Lectures)	Discovery and physiological roles of auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ABA, and ethylene.
Unit 9: Plant Response to Light and Temperature (6 Lectures)	Photoperiodism (SDP, LDP, day-neutral plants); phytochrome (discovery and structure); red and far-red light responses on photomorphogenesis; vernalization.

Economic Botany and Biotechnology

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Origin of Cultivated Plants (4 Lectures)	Concept of centres of origin; their importance with reference to Vavilov’s work.
Unit 2: Cereals (4 Lectures)	Wheat: Origin, morphology, and uses.
Unit 3: Legumes (6 Lectures)	General account with special reference to gram and soybean.
Unit 4: Spices (6 Lectures)	General account with special reference to clove and black pepper (botanical name, family, part used, morphology, and uses).
Unit 5: Beverages (4 Lectures)	Tea: Morphology, processing, and uses.
Unit 6: Oils and Fats (4 Lectures)	General description with special reference to groundnut.
Unit 7: Fibre Yielding Plants (4 Lectures)	General description with special reference to cotton (botanical name, family, part used, morphology, and uses).
Unit 8: Introduction to Biotechnology (2 Lectures)	Overview of biotechnology concepts and applications.
Unit 9: Plant Tissue Culture (8 Lectures)	Micropropagation; haploid production through androgenesis and gynogenesis; brief account of embryo and endosperm culture with their applications.
Unit 10: Recombinant DNA Techniques (18 Lectures)	Blotting techniques: Northern, Southern, and Western Blotting; DNA fingerprinting; molecular DNA markers (RAPD, RFLP, SNPs); DNA sequencing; PCR and reverse transcriptase-PCR; hybridoma and monoclonal antibodies; ELISA and immunodetection; molecular diagnosis of human diseases; human gene therapy.

Environmental Biotechnology

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Environment (4 Lectures)	Basic concepts and issues; global environmental problems: ozone depletion, UV-B, greenhouse effect, acid rain due to anthropogenic activities; their impact and biotechnological approaches for management.
Unit 2: Environmental Problems (6 Lectures)	Environmental pollution: types, sources, measurement methods, fate of pollutants in the environment, bioconcentration, and bio/geomagnification.
Unit 3: Microbiology of Waste Water Treatment (8 Lectures)	Aerobic processes: activated sludge, oxidation ponds, trickling filters, towers, rotating discs, rotating drums, oxidation ditch. Anaerobic processes: anaerobic digestion, anaerobic filters, upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactors. Treatment schemes for waste waters from dairy, distillery, tannery, sugar, and antibiotic industries.
Unit 4: Xenobiotic Compounds (10 Lectures)	Organic (chlorinated hydrocarbons, substituted simple aromatic compounds, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, pesticides, surfactants) and inorganic (metals, radionuclides, phosphates, nitrates). Bioremediation of xenobiotics in the environment: ecological considerations, decay behavior, degradative plasmids, and molecular techniques in bioremediation.
Unit 5: Role of Immobilized Cells/Enzymes in Treatment of Toxic Compounds (6 Lectures)	Biopesticides, bioreactors, bioleaching, biomining, biosensors, biotechniques for air pollution abatement, and odor control.
Unit 6: Sustainable Development (8 Lectures)	Economics and environment: economic growth, gross national productivity, quality of life, tragedy of the commons, economics of pollution control, cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness analysis, WTO and environment, corporate social responsibility, environmental awareness, and education; environmental ethics.
Unit 7: International Legislations, Policies for Environmental Protection (6 Lectures)	Stockholm Conference (1972) and its declaration; WCED (1983) and Brundtland Report (1987); Rio Earth Summit-UNCED (1992) and its declaration; Montreal Protocol (1987); Basel Convention (1989); Kyoto Protocol (1997); Ramsar Convention (1971).
Unit 8: National Legislations, Policies for Pollution Management (6 Lectures)	Salient features of Wildlife Protection Act (1972), Water Pollution (Prevention and Control) Act (1974), Forest Conservation Act (1980), Air Pollution (Prevention and Control) Act (1981), National Environmental Policy (2006), Central and State Pollution Control Boards: constitution and powers.
Unit 9: Public Participation for Environmental Protection (6 Lectures)	Environmental movements and people’s participation with special references to Gandhamardan, Chilika, Narmada Bachao Andolan, Chipko, and Silent Valley Movement; women and environmental protection; role of NGOs in bringing environmental awareness and education to society.

Ability Enhancement Courses Elective

Biofertilizers

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: General Account about Microbes Used as Biofertilizer (4 Lectures)	Overview of biofertilizers; Rhizobium: isolation, identification, mass multiplication, carrier-based inoculants; Actinorrhizal symbiosis.
Unit 2: Azospirillum and Azotobacter (8 Lectures)	Azospirillum: isolation and mass multiplication, carrier-based inoculants, associative effects of different microorganisms. Azotobacter: classification, characteristics, crop response to Azotobacter inoculum, maintenance, and mass multiplication.
Unit 3: Cyanobacteria and Rice Cultivation (4 Lectures)	Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae): general characteristics; Azolla and Anabaena azollae association; nitrogen fixation; factors affecting growth; role of blue-green algae and Azolla in rice cultivation.
Unit 4: Mycorrhizal Associations (8 Lectures)	Mycorrhizal associations: types, taxonomy, occurrence, and distribution; phosphorus nutrition; growth and yield; colonization of VAM (Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhiza); isolation and inoculum production of VAM; influence on growth and yield of crop plants.
Unit 5: Organic Farming (8 Lectures)	Overview of organic farming; green manuring and organic fertilizers; recycling of biodegradable municipal, agricultural, and industrial wastes; biocomposting methods; types and methods of vermicomposting; field application.

Herbal Technology

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Herbal Medicines (6 Lectures)	History and scope of herbal medicines; definition of medical terms; role of medicinal plants in Siddha systems of medicine; cultivation, harvesting, processing, storage, marketing, and utilization of medicinal plants.
Unit 2: Pharmacognosy (6 Lectures)	Systematic position and medicinal uses of the following herbs in curing various ailments: Tulsi, Ginger, Fenugreek, Indian Gooseberry, and Ashoka.
Unit 3: Phytochemistry (6 Lectures)	Active principles and methods of testing; identification and utilization of medicinal herbs: Catharanthus roseus (cardiotonic), Withania somnifera (nervous system), Clerodendron phlomoides (anti-rheumatic), and Centella asiatica (memory booster).
Unit 4: Analytical Pharmacognosy (8 Lectures)	Drug adulteration: types and methods; drug evaluation methods; biological testing of herbal drugs; phytochemical screening tests for secondary metabolites (alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, triterpenoids, phenolic compounds).
Unit 5: Medicinal Plant Banks and Micropropagation (4 Lectures)	Micropropagation of important species (Withania somnifera, neem, and tulsi); herbal foods; the future of pharmacognosy.

Nursery and Gardening

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Nursery Management (4 Lectures)	Definition, objectives, and scope of nursery; building infrastructure for nursery; planning and seasonal activities; planting methods: direct seeding and transplants.
Unit 2: Seed Technology (6 Lectures)	Structure and types of seeds; seed dormancy: causes and methods of breaking dormancy; seed storage: seed banks, factors affecting seed viability, genetic erosion; seed production technology; seed testing and certification.
Unit 3: Vegetative Propagation (6 Lectures)	Methods of vegetative propagation: air-layering, cutting (selection, collecting season, treatment, rooting medium), hardening of plants; greenhouse types: mist chamber, shed roof, shade house, and glass house.
Unit 4: Gardening (8 Lectures)	Definition, objectives, and scope of gardening; types of gardening: landscape and home gardening; components of parks; plant materials and design; computer applications in landscaping; gardening operations: soil laying, manuring, watering, pest and disease management, and harvesting.
Unit 5: Cultivation of Vegetables (6 Lectures)	Sowing/raising seeds and seedlings; transplanting seedlings; study of cultivation practices for different vegetables: cabbage, brinjal, lady’s finger, onion, garlic, tomatoes, and carrots; storage and marketing procedures.

Floriculture

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Introduction (2 Lectures)	History of gardening; importance and scope of floriculture and landscape gardening.
Unit 2: Nursery Management and Routine Garden Operations (8 Lectures)	Sexual and vegetative methods of propagation; soil sterilization; seed sowing; pricking; planting and transplanting; shading; stopping or pinching; defoliation; wintering; mulching; topiary; role of plant growth regulators.
Unit 3: Ornamental Plants (4 Lectures)	Flowering annuals; herbaceous perennials; divine vines; shade and ornamental trees; ornamental bulbous and foliage plants; cacti and succulents; palms and cycads; ferns and Selaginellas; cultivation of plants in pots; indoor gardening; bonsai.
Unit 4: Principles of Garden Designs (4 Lectures)	English, Italian, French, Persian, Mughal, and Japanese gardens; features of a garden (garden wall, fencing, steps, hedge, edging, lawn, flower beds, shrubbery, borders, water garden); some famous gardens of India.
Unit 5: Landscaping Places of Public Importance (4 Lectures)	Landscaping of highways and educational institutions.
Unit 6: Commercial Floriculture (6 Lectures)	Factors affecting flower production; production and packaging of cut flowers; flower arrangements; methods to prolong vase life; cultivation of important cut flowers (carnation, aster, chrysanthemum, dahlia, gerbera, gladiolus, marigold, rose, lilium, orchids).
Unit 7: Diseases and Pests of Ornamental Plants (4 Lectures)	Identification, prevention, and management of diseases and pests affecting ornamental plants.

Medicinal Botany

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: History, Scope and Importance of Medicinal Plants (10 Lectures)	Indigenous medicinal sciences; definition and scope of Ayurveda: history, origin, panchamahabhutas, saptadhatu and tridosha concepts, Rasayana; plants used in Ayurvedic treatments. Siddha: origin of Siddha medicinal systems, basis of Siddha system, plants used in Siddha medicine. Unani: history, concept of Umoor-e-tabiya, tumor treatments/therapy, polyherbal formulations.
Unit 2: Conservation of Endangered and Endemic Medicinal Plants (10 Lectures)	Definition of endemic and endangered medicinal plants; Red List criteria; In situ conservation: biosphere reserves, sacred groves, national parks; Ex situ conservation: botanic gardens, ethnomedicinal plant gardens. Propagation of medicinal plants: objectives of the nursery, classification, important components of a nursery, sowing, pricking, use of greenhouse for nursery production, propagation through cuttings, layering, grafting, and budding.
Unit 3: Ethnobotany and Folk Medicines (10 Lectures)	Definition of ethnobotany; ethnobotany in India: methods to study ethnobotany; applications of ethnobotany: national interactions, paleoethnobotany; folk medicines of ethnobotany, ethnomedicine, ethnoecology, ethnic communities of India. Application of natural products to certain diseases: jaundice, cardiac issues, infertility, diabetes, blood pressure, and skin diseases.

Plant Diversity and Human Welfare

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Plant Diversity and Its Scope (8 Lectures)	Plant diversity and its scope: genetic diversity, species diversity, plant diversity at the ecosystem level, agrobiodiversity, and cultivated plant taxa, wild taxa. Values and uses of biodiversity: ethical and aesthetic values, precautionary principle, methodologies for valuation, uses of plants, and uses of microbes.
Unit 2: Loss of Biodiversity (8 Lectures)	Loss of biodiversity: loss of genetic diversity, species diversity, ecosystem diversity, and agrobiodiversity; projected scenario for biodiversity loss. Management of plant biodiversity: organizations associated with biodiversity management (IUCN, UNEP, UNESCO, WWF, NBPGR); biodiversity legislation and conservation; biodiversity information management and communication.
Unit 3: Conservation of Biodiversity (8 Lectures)	Conservation of biodiversity: conservation of genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity; in situ and ex situ conservation; social approaches to conservation; biodiversity awareness programmes; sustainable development.
Unit 4: Role of Plants in Relation to Human Welfare (8 Lectures)	Importance of forestry: their utilization and commercial aspects; avenue trees; ornamental plants of India; alcoholic beverages through the ages; fruits and nuts: important fruit crops and their commercial importance; wood and its uses.

Ethnobotany

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Ethnobotany (6 Lectures)	Introduction, concept, scope, and objectives; ethnobotany as an interdisciplinary science. Relevance of ethnobotany in the present context; major and minor ethnic groups or tribals of India and their lifestyles. Plants used by the tribals: a) food plants, b) intoxicants and beverages, c) resins and oils, and miscellaneous uses.
Unit 2: Methodology of Ethnobotanical Studies (6 Lectures)	Field work, herbarium, ancient literature, archaeological findings, temples, and sacred places.
Unit 3: Role of Ethnobotany in Modern Medicine (10 Lectures)	Medico-ethnobotanical sources in India; significance of the following plants in ethnobotanical practices (along with their habitat and morphology): a) Azadirachta indica, b) Ocimum sanctum, c) Vitex negundo, d) Gloriosa superba, e) Tribulus terrestris, f) Pongamia pinnata, g) Cassia auriculata, h) Indigofera tinctoria. Role of ethnobotany in modern medicine with special examples: Rauvolfia serpentina, Trichopus zeylanicus, Artemisia, Withania. Role of ethnic groups in conservation of plant genetic resources, endangered taxa, and forest management (participatory forest management).
Unit 4: Ethnobotany and Legal Aspects (8 Lectures)	Ethnobotany as a tool to protect the interests of ethnic groups. Sharing of wealth concept with examples from India. Biopiracy, intellectual property rights, and traditional knowledge.

Mushroom Culture Technology

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Introduction to Edible Mushrooms (5 Lectures)	Introduction and history; nutritional and medicinal value of edible mushrooms; poisonous mushrooms; types of edible mushrooms available in India – Volvariella volvacea, Pleurotus citrinopileatus, Agaricus bisporus.
Unit 2: Cultivation Technology (12 Lectures)	Infrastructure: substrates (locally available), polythene bag, vessels, inoculation hook, inoculation loop, low-cost stove, sieves, culture rack, mushroom unit (thatched house), water sprayer, tray, small polythene bag. Pure culture: medium, sterilization, preparation of spawn, multiplication. Mushroom bed preparation – paddy straw, sugarcane trash, maize straw, banana leaves. Factors affecting mushroom bed preparation – low-cost technology, composting technology in mushroom production.
Unit 3: Storage and Nutrition (8 Lectures)	Short-term storage (refrigeration – up to 24 hours); long-term storage (canning, pickles, papads); drying; storage in salt solutions. Nutrition – proteins, amino acids, mineral elements, carbohydrates, crude fiber content, vitamins.
Unit 4: Food Preparation and Research Centres (4 Lectures)	Types of foods prepared from mushrooms; research centers – national and regional level; cost-benefit ratio; marketing in India and abroad; export value.

Intellectual Property Rights

Unit	Topics
Unit 1: Introduction to Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) (2 Lectures)	Concept and kinds; economic importance; IPR in India and the world: genesis and scope, some important examples; IPR and WTO (TRIPS, WIPO).
Unit 2: Patents (3 Lectures)	Objectives; rights; Patent Act 1970 and its amendments; procedure for obtaining patents; working of patents; infringement.
Unit 3: Copyrights (3 Lectures)	Introduction; works protected under copyright law; rights; transfer of copyright; infringement.
Unit 4: Trademarks (3 Lectures)	Objectives; types; rights; protection of goodwill; infringement; passing off; defenses; domain name.
Unit 5: Geographical Indications (3 Lectures)	Objectives; justification; international position; multilateral treaties; national level; Indian position.
Unit 6: Protection of Traditional Knowledge (4 Lectures)	Objective; concept of traditional knowledge; holders; issues concerning; bio-prospecting and bio-piracy; alternative ways; protectability; need for a sui-generis regime; traditional knowledge on the international arena; at WTO; at national level; Traditional Knowledge Digital Library.
Unit 7: Industrial Designs (2 Lectures)	Objectives; rights; assignments; infringements; defenses of design infringement.
Unit 8: Protection of Plant Varieties (2 Lectures)	Plant varieties protection – objectives; justification; international position; plant varieties protection in India; rights of farmers, breeders, and researchers; national gene bank; benefit sharing; Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001.
Unit 9: Information Technology Related Intellectual Property Rights (4 Lectures)	Computer software and intellectual property; database and data protection; protection of semiconductor chips; domain name protection.
Unit 10: Biotechnology and Intellectual Property Rights (4 Lectures)	Patenting biotech inventions: objective; applications; concept of novelty; concept of inventive step; microorganisms; moral issues in patenting biotechnological inventions.