Describe the four mechanisms used by bacterial species to generate resistance to antibiotics.

The four primary mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in bacteria are: 1. Enzymatic degradation: Bacteria produce enzymes (e.g., beta-lactamases) that break down antibiotics. 2. Efflux pumps: Bacteria can pump out antibiotics from the cell, reducing the drug’s effectiveness. 3. Alteration of target sites: Bacteria modify the target of the antibiotic, preventing the drug from binding effectively. 4. Reduced permeability: Bacteria alter their cell membrane to prevent antibiotics from entering the cell.