Outline how selective breeding by artificial selection is carried out over many generations to improve crop plants and domesticated animals and apply this to given contexts

Selective breeding, also known as artificial selection, is a process by which humans intentionally choose specific plants or animals with desirable traits to reproduce, thereby enhancing those traits in future generations. This method has been widely used in agriculture and animal husbandry to improve crop plants and domesticated animals. Below is an outline of how selective breeding is carried out over many generations, along with specific contexts for its application.

(a) Selection by Humans of Individuals with Desirable Features

The first step in selective breeding involves identifying and selecting individuals that exhibit traits deemed desirable. These traits can vary widely depending on the goals of the breeding program:

• In Crop Plants: Farmers may select plants that produce larger fruits, have higher yields, or are more resistant to pests and diseases. For example, early corn was selectively bred from the wild grass teosinte to enhance its size and yield.
• In Domesticated Animals: Breeders might choose animals that display traits such as faster growth rates, higher milk production, or specific temperamental qualities. For instance, dairy cows are often selected for their ability to produce more milk.

(b) Crossing These Individuals to Produce the Next Generation

Once suitable individuals are selected, they are bred together to produce offspring. This crossing can be done through:

• Controlled Mating: Breeders ensure that only selected individuals mate. This may involve artificial insemination or careful pairing based on genetic compatibility.
• Hybridization: Different strains or breeds may be crossed to combine desirable traits from both parents. For example, crossing two varieties of tomatoes might yield offspring with improved flavor and disease resistance.

The goal at this stage is to create a new generation that inherits the desired traits from its parents.

(c) Selection of Offspring Showing the Desirable Features

After producing a new generation, breeders evaluate the offspring for the presence of the desired traits:

• Phenotypic Assessment: Breeders assess physical characteristics such as size, color, and overall health. For instance, in livestock breeding, farmers may look for calves that show strong growth and good conformation.
• Performance Testing: In some cases, offspring may be tested for performance traits such as growth rate or yield before final selection. For example, in crop breeding, plants might be evaluated for their yield under specific environmental conditions.

Once the best-performing individuals are identified—those that exhibit the desired features—they are selected for further breeding. This cycle of selection continues over multiple generations to reinforce and enhance the desired traits within the population.

Contextual Applications

1. Crop Improvement:
   • Selective breeding has dramatically increased agricultural productivity. For example, modern corn varieties have been bred to yield significantly more per acre than their ancestors due to selective breeding practices focused on size and disease resistance.
2. Livestock Production:
   • In animal husbandry, selective breeding has led to significant improvements in meat and dairy production. For instance, modern chickens can lay up to 300 eggs per year compared to their wild ancestors that laid only about 10-15 eggs annually. This improvement is achieved through careful selection of hens that demonstrate high egg production rates.
3. Ornamental Plants:
   • Selective breeding is also applied in horticulture to develop ornamental plants with specific aesthetic qualities such as color, size, and fragrance. For example, roses have been selectively bred for various flower colors and shapes over generations