General description of Fibre Yielding Plants

Fibre-yielding plants have played a crucial role in the advancement of human civilization, second only to food plants in their utility. Early humans relied on these plants to meet essential needs such as clothing, shelter, and tools. While animal products provided some solutions, plant fibers offered lighter and more flexible alternatives for tasks such as making nets, bowstrings, and basic clothing, which were more suitable for a wide range of climates and uses.

Plant fibers are typically found in the stems, leaves, and roots of various species. These fibers have been utilized for thousands of years and remain significant in modern life, having widespread applications in textiles, ropes, and other essential goods. While it is difficult to estimate the exact number of fiber-producing plants, conservative estimates suggest that over a thousand species are known, with many found in regions like the Philippines. However, only a relatively small number of these plants are cultivated for large-scale commercial use, while the rest are used by indigenous or local communities for regional needs.

Some of the most important fiber plants, like flax, cotton, and ramie, have ancient origins and have been cultivated for thousands of years. For instance, flax cultivation dates back to the Stone Age in Europe, with the ancient Egyptians being famous for their fine linen. Cotton has been the primary textile in India for centuries and was also widely used by indigenous civilizations in the Americas. Similarly, ramie, known as China grass, has been cultivated in Asia for centuries.

Therefore, despite the vast variety of plants that produce fibers, only a few have had a lasting and profound impact on human progress, due to their unique properties and widespread utility.

Structure And Occurrence of Fibre

Structure of Fibres

1. Cell Type and Composition:
   • Fibres are predominantly sclerenchyma cells, which are a type of supportive tissue in plants. These cells contribute to the plant’s structural integrity and strength.
   • They typically feature thick cell walls, which may be composed of lignin and cellulose. Lignin adds rigidity, while cellulose provides flexibility and tensile strength.
   • The fibres are usually elongated with small lumens (cavities) and pointed ends.
2. Cell Arrangement:
   • Fibres can be found individually or grouped in small clusters. More commonly, they form sheets of tissue where individual cells overlap and interlock, enhancing their mechanical strength and utility.

Occurrence of Fibres

1. Locations in the Plant:
   • Stems: Many fibres are located in the stems, contributing to the plant’s structural support.
   • Leaves: Fibres are also present in leaves, where they assist in maintaining leaf rigidity.
   • Roots: In roots, fibres help in anchoring the plant and providing support.
   • Fruits and Seeds: Some fibres are found in fruits and seeds, where they often serve protective roles or aid in seed dispersal.
2. Types of Fibres:
   • Bast Fibres: These fibres are derived from the phloem tissue of stems. They are found in the outer layers and are critical for textile production. The term “bast fibre” is traditionally used, though “cortical,” “pericyclic,” or “phloem fibres” might be more precise.
   • Wood Fibres: These are located in the xylem and are crucial for the structural strength of the plant’s vascular system.
   • Sclerenchyma Cells in Vascular Bundles: These fibres are associated with vascular bundles in leaves and contribute to the support and nutrient transport within the plant.
   • Surface Fibres: Hairlike outgrowths found on seeds that often have protective or dispersal functions.

Soft Fibres

1. Cotton

Botanical Classification

• Botanical Name: Gossypium spp.
• Family: Malvaceae (the mallow family)

Parts Used

• Cotton Fiber: The primary commercial product obtained from the seed’s fibers.
• Cottonseed: Used for extracting oil and other by-products.
• Cotton Stalks: Utilized in paper making and as fuel.
• Cotton Linters: Short fibers from cottonseed used in various industrial applications.
• Cotton Hulls: Employed as stock feed, fertilizer, and in various industrial processes.

Types of Cotton

1. Gossypium barbadense
   • Sea-Island Cotton: Known for its long, silky fibers with a staple length greater than 2 inches. Historically significant for its high quality and used in premium textiles. Cultivated predominantly in the West Indies and South America.
   • Egyptian Cotton: Distinguished by its slightly shorter staple length (1.5 to 1.75 inches) and brownish color. Widely used in high-quality fabrics such as threads, hosiery, and dress goods. Grown mainly in the Nile Basin and introduced to the U.S. in the early 20th century.
2. Gossypium hirsutum
   • Upland Cotton: The most widely cultivated species, especially in the U.S. It produces fibers with lengths varying from 0.75 to 1.25 inches. Grows well in diverse conditions but thrives in sandy soils with ample moisture. Upland cotton constitutes the majority of the domestic cotton crop in the U.S.
3. Gossypium herbaceum
   • Asiatic Cotton: Predominantly grown in Asia including India, Persia, China, and Japan. Known for its short fibers (0.5 to 0.75 inches), it is robust and used primarily for local textile production.

Morphology

• Plant Structure: Cotton plants are typically perennial shrubs or small trees, although they are grown as annuals in commercial agriculture. The plants range from 4 to 8 feet in height.
• Leaves: Broad, lobed, and typically palmately veined.
• Flowers: The flowers can be white, yellow, or light yellow, depending on the species. They are often solitary and occur at the nodes of the plant.
• Fruit (Boll): The cotton fruit is a capsule known as a boll, which contains the seeds encased in fibers. The bolls split open when mature, releasing the cotton fibers.

Uses

• Textiles: Cotton is primarily used in the textile industry for making clothing, household fabrics, and various other textiles. Its fibers are valued for their softness, breathability, and durability.
• Cottonseed Oil: Extracted from the seeds and used in cooking, as well as in the production of margarine and other food products.
• Paper and Fuel: The stalks can be processed into paper or used as a fuel source.
• Industrial Applications: Cotton linters are utilized in making wadding, padding, and low-grade yarns. Cotton hulls serve as stock feed, fertilizer, and in other industrial processes like lining oil wells.
• Cellulose Production: Absorbent cotton, which is cleaned and processed to remove the oily layer, is a major raw material for cellulose-based industries.

2. Flax

Botanical Classification

• Botanical Name: Linum usitatissimum
• Family: Linaceae

Parts Used

• Flax Fiber: Extracted from the plant’s stem and used for making textiles.
• Flaxseed: Used for extracting linseed oil and in medicinal applications.
• Flax Stalks: The stems of the plant, utilized in the fiber extraction process.
• Flax Tow: The shorter, coarser fibers separated from the longer fibers.

Morphology

• Plant Structure: Flax is an annual herb that typically reaches a height of 1 to 4 feet.
• Leaves: The leaves are small and narrow.
• Flowers: Flax flowers are blue or white and are arranged in terminal clusters.
• Fibers: The fibers are found in the pericycle of the stem and are composed of long, tough, stringy strands ranging from 1 to 3 feet in length. These fibers are aggregates of numerous elongated cells with thick cellulose walls.

Cultivation and Processing

• Soil Requirements: Flax thrives in rich, moist, and organic soils, and is primarily cultivated in temperate regions.
• Harvesting: The crop is harvested manually, and the stems are processed through a procedure known as rippling to break them.
• Retting: The retting process involves submerging the stems in water or exposing them to dew. This process uses an enzyme to dissolve the calcium pectate in the middle lamella, freeing the fibers from the stem.
• Post-Retting: After retting, the straw is dried and cleaned. The fibers are separated from the stem tissue through scutching.
• Hackling: This step involves separating the long fibers from the shorter fibers (tow), using either manual methods or a hackling machine.

Uses

• Textiles: Flax fibers are renowned for their tensile strength and durability. They are used to produce linen cloth, thread, canvas, duck fabric, and carpets.
• Industrial Applications: The fibers are used to make high-strength twine, fish and seine lines, fine writing paper, and insulating materials.
• Flaxseed: The seeds are a source of linseed oil, which is utilized in various industrial and medicinal applications. Linseed oil is valued for its fatty acids and is used in paints, varnishes, and as a nutritional supplement.

Geographic Distribution

• Primary Producers: Northern European countries are leading producers of fiber flax, with Russia being the largest producer. Other significant producers include Poland, the Baltic states, Belgium, Holland, France, and Germany.
• United States: Flax was introduced to the U.S. by early settlers and was widely grown until 1900. Currently, commercial fiber flax cultivation is not prevalent in the U.S., though flax is still grown for seed, primarily in drier regions, for linseed oil production.

3. Hemp

Botanical Classification

• Botanical Name: Cannabis sativa
• Family: Cannabaceae

Parts Used

• Hemp Fiber: Extracted from the pericycle of the stem, used in textile and industrial applications.
• Hemp Seed: Used for oil extraction and as a source of nutritional and industrial products.
• Hemp Stalk: Utilized in fiber processing and paper production.
• Hemp Leaves and Flowering Tops: Source of hashish and other drugs.

Morphology

• Plant Structure: Hemp is a stout, bushy, annual plant that can grow between 5 to 15 feet tall.
• Leaves: The plant has palmate leaves, which are divided into multiple leaflets.
• Flowers: Hemp is dioecious, meaning male and female flowers are on separate plants. The male plants are preferred for their superior fiber quality.
• Stems: The stems are hollow and fibrous, contributing to the plant’s strength and durability.
• Fibers: Hemp fibers are white bast fibers located in the pericycle of the stem. They range in length from 3 to 9 feet and are noted for their strength and durability but lack the flexibility and elasticity of flax due to lignification.

Cultivation and Processing

• Soil Requirements: Hemp thrives in rich, loamy soils with high organic content. Calcareous soils are particularly well-suited for its cultivation.
• Climate: The plant requires a mild, humid climate for optimal growth.
• Harvesting: Hemp is harvested by hand or machine. It is important to harvest when the male flowers are fully mature to ensure strong and durable fibers.
• Processing: After harvesting, the stems are shocked and dried. The fibers are then separated from the bark through retting, which can be done in dew or water. Following retting, the fibers are broken, scutched, and hackled by hand to remove the non-fibrous material.

Uses

• Textiles: Hemp is used to make ropes, twine, carpets, sailcloth, yacht cordage, binder twine, sacks, bags, and webbing. Finer grades of hemp can be woven into cloth resembling coarse linen.
• Industrial Applications: The short fibers, or tow, and ravelings are used to make oakum, which is applied in shipbuilding for caulking seams and in cooperage and packing for pumps and engines.
• Paper Production: Hemp waste and woody fibers are utilized in paper-making processes.
• Seed: Hemp seeds are processed to extract oil, which is used in the soap and paint industries as a substitute for linseed oil.
• Drugs: In tropical regions, hemp is cultivated for its seeds and for producing hashish, a resinous drug derived from the flowering tops and leaves. Hashish contains various alkaloids and has significant social and economic impacts in many countries.

4. Jute

Botanical Classification

• Botanical Name: Corchorus capsularis and Corchorus olitorius
• Family: Malvaceae

Parts Used

• Jute Fiber: Extracted from the secondary phloem of the plant’s stem, used for textile and industrial applications.
• Jute Butts: Short fibers and pieces from the lower ends of the stalks, utilized in paper production.

Morphology

• Plant Structure: Jute is a tall, slender, half-shrubby annual plant that grows between 8 to 12 feet in height.
• Leaves: The plant has broad, simple leaves.
• Flowers: Jute produces yellow flowers.
• Stems: The stems are fibrous and contain the bast fibers in the secondary phloem. These fibers are long and stiff due to lignification and have a silky luster.

Cultivation and Processing

• Soil Requirements: Jute thrives in warm, humid climates with rich, loamy, alluvial soils. The soil is often inundated, which supports optimal growth.
• Climate: The plant requires a consistently warm and humid environment.
• Harvesting: The crop is typically harvested within three to four months after planting, while the flowers are still in bloom.
• Processing: After harvesting, the stems are retted in pools or tanks for several days to decompose the softer tissues. The fibers are then separated by whipping the stems on the water’s surface. The resulting jute strands, or gunny, are long and stiff but are prone to deterioration when exposed to moisture.

Uses

• Textiles: Jute is primarily used for rough textiles. Common products include burlap bags, gunny sacks, wool and potato sacks, and covers for cotton bales. The fiber is also used to make twine, carpets, curtains, and coarse cloth.
• Paper Production: The shorter fibers and jute butts are used in making paper.
• Other Applications: Due to its inexpensive cost and ease of spinning, jute is a valuable material in various industrial and commercial applications.

5. Ramie

Botanical Classification

• Botanical Name: Boehmeria nivea
• Family: Urticaceae

Parts Used

• Ramie Fiber: Extracted from the bast, the fibrous layer of the plant’s stem.
• Bark: The outer portion of the stem, which is processed to obtain the fibers.

Morphology

• Plant Structure: Ramie is a perennial herbaceous or shrubby plant that typically lacks branches when cultivated. It has slender stalks that grow to a height of 3 to 6 feet.
• Leaves: The leaves are heart-shaped, with a green upper surface and a whitish underside.
• Growth Conditions: Ramie is native to Asia and thrives in fertile, well-drained soils. It is currently grown extensively in China, Japan, Formosa, and India, and has been experimented with in the southern United States and California.

Cultivation and Processing

• Harvesting: The plant is harvested multiple times per season, despite a low yield per crop.
• Processing: The fibers are extracted from the bast. The outer bark and green tissue are removed either by hand scraping, boiling, or mechanical means. The remaining fibers are coated with gum, requiring extensive treatment to prepare them for use.
• Challenges: The extraction process is labor-intensive and costly, which affects the overall use of ramie. The fibers also lack flexibility and cohesion due to their smooth texture.

Uses

• Textiles: Ramie fibers are highly valued for their strength, durability, and luster. They are used in Asia for manufacturing grass cloth and other dress goods.
• Other Applications: In Europe, ramie is utilized for a range of products including underwear, portieres, upholstery, thread, and paper.
• Strength: Ramie is noted for being three times stronger than hemp, making it an exceptional fiber for durability. However, its high cost of processing and the lack of flexibility limit its widespread use.
• Recent Developments: Advances in processing techniques have led to the development of fibers that meet textile manufacturers’ requirements, potentially expanding its applications.

Varieties

• Rhea: A variety of ramie known as Boehmeria nivea var. tenacissima is sometimes referred to as rhea. It resembles ramie but has green leaves on both sides. For commercial purposes, rhea fiber is classified under ramie.

6. Sunn Hemp

Botanical Classification

• Botanical Name: Crotalaria juncea
• Family: Fabaceae

Parts Used

• Fiber: Obtained from the bast, the fibrous layer of the plant’s stem.

Morphology

• Plant Structure: Sunn hemp is a shrubby annual plant that typically reaches a height of 6 to 10 feet. It features bright yellow flowers.
• Growth Conditions: This plant is not found in the wild but has been cultivated for centuries, particularly in Asia. It thrives in a variety of climates, with extensive cultivation occurring in India, particularly around Madras, as well as in Ceylon and other parts of the Orient.

Cultivation and Processing

• Cultivation: Sunn hemp is grown extensively during the rainy season on over 500,000 acres in India. The plant’s cultivation is primarily agricultural and involves standard farming techniques.
• Processing: The bast fibers are extracted from the stem. The process includes harvesting the plant, retting to remove non-fibrous tissues, and separating the fibers for further use.

Uses

• Textile Applications: Sunn hemp fibers are noted for their strength, which surpasses that of jute. They are used in the manufacture of cordage, sacks, nets, and coarse canvas. These applications benefit from the fiber’s durability and lighter color.
• Industrial Use: The United States imports significant quantities of sunn hemp for use in coarse twines, demonstrating its utility in various industrial applications.

Hard Or Structural Fibres

1. Abaca (Manila Hemp)

• Botanical Name: Musa textilis
• Family: Musaceae
• Part Used: Fibers from the sheathing leaf stalks
• Morphology:
  • Musa textilis resembles the true banana but features narrower, more tufted leaves and inedible fruits.
  • It grows to about 10-15 feet in height and has a trunk-like appearance formed by the leaf sheaths.
• Uses:
  • Abaca fibers are highly valued for their strength, elasticity, and resistance to salt and fresh water. They are used in making marine cables, binder twine, and other cordage.

2. Agave Fibers

• Botanical Name: Agave spp.
• Family: Agavaceae
• Part Used: Fibers from the leaves
• Morphology:
  • Agaves are stemless perennials with basal rosettes of thick, fleshy leaves.
  • The leaves contain fibers that are extracted by hand or mechanically.
• Types and Uses:
  • Henequen (Agave fourcroydes):
    • Native to Mexico; fibers are light straw-colored, wiry, and elastic.
    • Used for binder twine and lariats.
  • Sisal (Agave sisalana):
    • Native to Mexico and Central America; lacks spines on the leaves.
    • Cultivated in various tropical regions, including Hawaii and Africa.
    • Fibers are used for binder twine and various industrial products.
  • Istle:
    • Includes several species like Agave heteracantha and Agave Lecheguilla.
    • Known for its strength and durability, used in brushes and as a substitute for sisal and abaca.
  • Maguey (Agave cantala):
    • Grown in India and the Philippines; used as a substitute for sisal.

3. Mauritius Hemp

• Botanical Name: Furcraea gigantea
• Family: Agavaceae
• Part Used: Fibers from the leaves
• Morphology:
  • This plant resembles an agave but has less rigid leaves and a tall flowering stalk that can reach 20-40 feet.
• Uses:
  • The fibers are long, white, soft, and elastic but weaker than sisal.
  • Used in making hammocks, bags, coarse twine, and other cordage.

4. New Zealand Hemp

• Botanical Name: Phormium tenax
• Family: Asphodelaceae
• Part Used: Fibers from the leaves
• Morphology:
  • Native to swampy regions of New Zealand, the plant is now found in various tropical and temperate regions.
  • The plant is notable for its soft and flexible fibers.
• Uses:
  • Fibers are used for mattings, tow lines, cordage, and occasionally for cloth.

5. Bowstring Hemp

• Botanical Name: Sansevieria spp.
• Family: Asparagaceae
• Part Used: Fibers from the leaves
• Morphology:
  • Herbaceous perennials with basal rosettes of sword-like leaves.
  • Fibers are extracted from the leaves and are strong and elastic.
• Uses:
  • Traditionally used for mats, hammocks, bowstrings, and various types of cordage.

6. Coir

• Botanical Name: Cocos nucifera
• Family: Arecaceae
• Part Used: Fibers from the husk of the coconut fruit
• Morphology:
  • Coir is derived from the coarse fibers in the coconut husk.
  • The fibers are extracted by soaking the husks in salt water, followed by beating and washing.
• Uses:
  • Coir is used for sennit braid, hawsers, cables, doormats, floor coverings, upholstery, and stuffing.

7. Pineapple Fiber

• Botanical Name: Ananas comosus
• Family: Bromeliaceae
• Part Used: Fibers from the leaves
• Morphology:
  • The pineapple plant produces fibers from the leaves, which are extracted through hand scraping.
  • The fibers are shiny white, durable, and flexible.
• Uses:
  • Pineapple fibers are used for making delicate and costly fabrics like piña cloth, as well as strong fabrics in regions such as the Philippines, Formosa, and China.

Brush Fibres

1. Piassava

• Botanical Names: Raphia vinifera, Attalea funifera, Leopoldinia piassaba
• Family: Arecaceae
• Part Used: Leaf stalks or leaf sheaths
• Morphology:
  • Raphia vinifera (West African Piassava): Leaf stalks are retted and beaten to extract long fibers.
  • Attalea funifera (Bahia Piassava): Fibers are stiff, wiry, and brown, removed from swollen bases of leaf stalks.
  • Leopoldinia piassaba (Para Piassava): Fibers are collected from the margins of leaf petioles.
• Uses:
  • Piassava fibers are utilized for making brushes used in street sweeping, mats, and coarse cables. Additionally, they are used for ropes and baskets, particularly in native practices.

2. Palmyra Fiber

• Botanical Name: Borassus flabellifer
• Family: Arecaceae
• Part Used: Leaf stalks and leaf sheaths
• Morphology:
  • Derived from the Palmyra palm, which features a tall, robust structure with large, fan-shaped leaves.
• Uses:
  • The fiber is versatile and used in producing rope, twine, paper, and machine brushes. The plant itself is integral to various aspects of daily life in the East Indies.

3. Kittul Fiber

• Botanical Name: Caryota urens
• Family: Arecaceae
• Part Used: Leaf sheaths
• Morphology:
  • Obtained from the toddy palm, which has a distinctive, feathery leaf arrangement.
• Uses:
  • Kittul fiber is fine, soft, and pliable, making it suitable for making strong ropes and soft brushes. It also serves as a substitute for horsehair and oakum.

4. Broomcorn

• Botanical Name: Sorghum vulgare var. technicum
• Family: Poaceae
• Part Used: Seed head (panicle)
• Morphology:
  • Characterized by long, straight branches on the panicle, which forms the brush part of the plant.
• Uses:
  • Broomcorn is used to make carpet brooms and whisk brooms. The plant is grown primarily in the Mississippi Valley and harvested before flowering. The seed heads are sorted, threshed, and dried for use.

5. Broomroot (Zacaton)

• Botanical Name: Epicampes macroura
• Family: Poaceae
• Part Used: Fibrous roots
• Morphology:
  • This grass species has tufted, wiry culms and coarse roots. Found from Texas to Central America, particularly in mountainous regions.
• Uses:
  • The roots are extensively used in manufacturing cheaper brushes. After being dug, washed, cleaned, and dried, they are cut, graded, and baled for shipment.

Importance of Fibre Yielding Plants

Fibre-yielding plants play a crucial role in various aspects of human life and the environment. Here are some key points highlighting their importance:

• Economic Value: Fibre plants like cotton, hemp, and flax contribute significantly to economies around the world. They are essential raw materials for textiles, ropes, and paper, creating jobs and supporting livelihoods in agriculture and manufacturing.
• Sustainability: Many fibre plants are renewable resources, unlike synthetic fibres that rely on fossil fuels. For example, hemp grows quickly and requires fewer pesticides and fertilizers compared to conventional crops, making it a more sustainable choice.
• Environmental Benefits: Fibre plants can help improve soil health. For instance, certain plants like hemp have deep root systems that can prevent soil erosion and enhance soil structure.
• Versatility: Fibres from plants can be used in a variety of products beyond textiles, including biodegradable composites, insulation materials, and even building materials.
• Cultural Significance: Many fibre plants have deep cultural and historical significance. For example, traditional textiles made from cotton and silk are integral to cultural heritage in various regions.
• Biodegradability: Plant-based fibres are generally biodegradable, reducing their environmental impact compared to synthetic fibres that can persist in the environment for a long time.