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1665 Robert Hooke publishes Micrographia and coins the term cell after observing the structure of cork under a microscope
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1674 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek uses improved single-lens microscopes to describe “animalcules,” the first record of bacteria and protozoa
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1838–1839 Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann formulate the cell theory, stating that all living organisms are composed of one or more cells
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1859 Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species, introducing the theory of evolution by natural selection as the unifying principle of biology
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1865 Gregor Mendel presents his pea plant inheritance experiments, establishing the foundational laws of heredity and genetic segregation
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1868 Friedrich Miescher isolates a substance he calls “nuclein” (now known as DNA) from white blood cells, identifying a new kind of biological molecule
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1876 Robert Koch demonstrates bacteria as the causative agents of disease through Koch’s postulates, founding modern medical microbiology
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1882–1884 Carl Correns, Hugo de Vries, and Erich von Tschermak independently rediscover Mendel’s laws, revitalizing the study of genetics
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1902 Archibald Garrod proposes the concept of “inborn errors of metabolism,” linking gene mutations to metabolic diseases and introducing biochemical genetics
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1903 Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri articulate the chromosomal theory of inheritance, showing that genes are carried on chromosomes
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1928 Frederick Griffith discovers the “transforming principle” in Streptococcus pneumoniae, demonstrating that a factor from dead bacteria can genetically transform living cells
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1944 Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty identify DNA as the “transforming principle,” establishing DNA as the molecule of heredity
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1953 James Watson and Francis Crick propose the double-helix structure of DNA, explaining how genetic information is stored and replicated
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1957 Francis Crick articulates the central dogma of molecular biology, describing the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein
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1958 Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl experimentally confirm the semi-conservative mechanism of DNA replication
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1970 Hamilton O. Smith and Daniel Nathans discover type II restriction enzymes, enabling precise cleavage of DNA at specific sequences
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1972 Paul Berg creates the first recombinant DNA molecules by splicing DNA from different species, laying the groundwork for genetic engineering
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1975 Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer develop the first widely used method for cloning recombinant DNA in bacterial cells, ushering in modern biotechnology
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1983 Kary Mullis invents the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), allowing exponential amplification of specific DNA sequences and revolutionizing molecular diagnostics
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1990 Launch of the Human Genome Project, an international effort to sequence the entire human genome and catalog all human genes
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2001 Publication of the first draft of the human genome sequence by the Human Genome Project and Celera Genomics, providing a reference for human genetic research
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2003 Completion of the finished human genome sequence, marking a milestone in understanding human genetic variation and disease
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2012 Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna demonstrate the CRISPR-Cas9 system for programmable genome editing, opening new avenues for gene therapy and functional genomics
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2013 Introduction of single-cell RNA sequencing techniques, enabling transcriptomic profiling at the resolution of individual cells and transforming developmental biology and immunology
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2015 Emergence of CRISPR-based base editing (e.g., BE1 and BE2) techniques, allowing precise single-nucleotide changes without generating double-strand breaks
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2018 Completion of the first telomere-to-telomere assembly of a human chromosome (chromosome X), achieving a fully contiguous reference genome with no gaps
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2020 Development of mRNA-based vaccine platforms (e.g., for COVID-19), demonstrating rapid vaccine design and deployment leveraging synthetic biology and immunology insights
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2022 Advances in spatial transcriptomics methods, integrating gene expression data with tissue architecture to elucidate cellular organization in health and disease
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2023 First FDA approvals of CRISPR-based gene therapies for inherited diseases (e.g., Leber congenital amaurosis), translating genome editing breakthroughs into clinical treatments
biology
1665
Robert Hooke observes cork cells under a microscope and coins the term "cell"
microbiology
1674
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek observes bacteria and protozoa using a single-lens microscope
cell biology
1838
Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann propose that all living organisms are composed of cells
evolution
1859
Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species introducing natural selection
genetics
1865
Gregor Mendel presents genetic inheritance patterns from pea plant experiments
molecular biology
1868
Friedrich Miescher isolates “nuclein” (DNA) from white blood cells
microbiology
1876
Robert Koch proves that bacteria cause infectious diseases using Koch’s postulates
de Vries
1882
Correns
biochemical genetics
1902
Archibald Garrod links gene mutations to metabolic disorders
genetics
1903
Sutton and Boveri show genes are located on chromosomes
genetics
1928
Fred Griffith discovers that genetic traits can transfer between bacteria
MacLeod
1944
Avery
molecular biology
1953
Watson and Crick propose the double-helix structure of DNA
genetics
1957
Francis Crick defines the directional flow of genetic information
molecular biology
1958
Meselson and Stahl confirm semi-conservative DNA replication
molecular biology
1970
Smith and Nathans isolate type II restriction enzymes enabling gene editing
genetic engineering
1972
Paul Berg constructs the first recombinant DNA molecules
biotechnology
1975
Cohen and Boyer develop recombinant DNA cloning in bacterial cells
molecular biology
1983
Kary Mullis invents polymerase chain reaction to amplify DNA sequences
genomics
1990
International effort begins to sequence the entire human genome
genomics
2001
First draft of the human genome released by HGP and Celera Genomics
genomics
2003
Finished human genome sequence is completed and published
genetic engineering
2012
Charpentier and Doudna develop CRISPR-Cas9 for genome editing
genomics
2013
Techniques emerge enabling transcriptomic analysis of individual cells
genetic engineering
2015
CRISPR-based base editing methods enable precise nucleotide changes
genomics
2018
First telomere-to-telomere assembly of a human chromosome achieved
immunology
2020
COVID-19 mRNA vaccines demonstrate rapid vaccine design using genetic technologies
genomics
2022
Techniques integrate gene expression with tissue structure at cellular resolution
genetic medicine
2023
FDA approves CRISPR-based treatments for inherited disorders
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