# Cell Wall: Definition, Structure, Composition and Functions

> Learn what the cell wall is, its structure and functions, and how plant, bacterial, fungal, algal, and archaeal cell walls differ in composition.

Canonical URL: https://biologynotesonline.com/cell-wall-structure-composition-functions/
Author: Sourav Pan
Last updated: September 12, 2026

![Cell Wall: Definition, Structure, Composition and Functions](https://biologynotesonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Cell-Wall-Definition-Structure-Composition-Functions.jpeg)

A cell wall is a strong extracellular layer located outside the plasma membrane in many plants, fungi, algae, bacteria, and archaea. It helps cells maintain shape, withstand mechanical and osmotic stress, and interact with their environment. Cell walls are not identical across organisms: plant walls are rich in cellulose, most bacterial walls contain peptidoglycan, fungal walls commonly contain glucans and chitin, while algal and archaeal walls show considerable structural and chemical diversity.

## What is Cell Wall?

A cell wall is a strong extracellular covering present outside the [plasma membrane](https://biologynotesonline.com/cell-membrane-plasma-membrane-structures-and-functions/) of the cell. It gives protection and mechanical support to the cell and also helps in maintaining its shape.

The cell wall is generally described as a “rigid” structure. But it is not completely fixed. It has strength, at the same time some flexibility is also present. During growth and development, different components of the wall can be loosened, reorganized, added, or removed. In this way, the cell wall can undergo remodeling and controlled expansion without losing its mechanical support.

## Location and Basic Organization

- The cell wall is present outside the plasma membrane and surrounds the protoplast of the [plant cell](https://biologynotesonline.com/plant-cell/). It forms the outer extracellular region of the cell.

- In adjoining plant cells, the walls are connected through a middle lamella. This is mainly rich in pectic substances and lies between the primary walls of two neighbouring cells, helping the cells to remain joined together.

- The primary cell wall is formed during the growing stage of the cell. It is generally thin, highly hydrated and flexible as compared to the secondary wall. The wall has enough strength to resist turgor pressure, but it can also expand during cell growth.

- Cellulose microfibrils are arranged within a matrix containing mainly hemicelluloses and pectins in the primary wall. Their arrangement is not fixed. Wall materials are deposited and reorganized as the cell grows.

- A secondary cell wall is not present in every plant cell. In certain specialized cells, it is deposited towards the inner side of the primary wall, generally when cell expansion has stopped or greatly reduced. It is thicker and gives greater mechanical strength.

## Organisms With Cell Walls

Organism groupPresence of cell wallCharacteristic wall materialPlantsCell wall is present in plant cells.The wall mainly contains cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectins. Secondary walls may also contain lignin.FungiFungal cells generally possess a well-developed cell wall.Chitin and glucans are the major structural components. β-glucans are especially abundant, while other polysaccharides and wall proteins can also occur.AlgaeMany algae contain cell walls, although the composition is not same in all groups.Cellulose occurs in several groups. Other algae can contain β-mannans, β-xylans, alginates, agar, carrageenan or sulfated polysaccharides. Diatoms have a characteristic silica wall called a “frustule”.ProtistsCell walls or wall-like coverings are found in a number of protist groups, but they are not present in all protists.Their composition is highly variable. Cellulose, chitin and β-glucan occur in walls of some protists, while others possess silica coverings, theca or different surface structures.BacteriaMost bacteria possess a cell wall surrounding the plasma membrane.Peptidoglycan (murein) is the characteristic bacterial wall material. Some bacteria are naturally wall-less. Members of Mollicutes, including Mycoplasma, permanently lack a typical cell wall.ArchaeaCell walls or other external wall structures are present in many archaea. Their wall is different from bacterial wall.Peptidoglycan is absent. A protein or glycoprotein S-layer forms the outer wall in many archaea, whereas pseudomurein and some other polymers are found in certain groups.AnimalsAnimal cells do not contain a cell wall. They are enclosed by the plasma membrane and may be associated with an extracellular matrix instead.No characteristic cell wall material is present.

![Comparative diagram showing characteristic plant, bacterial, fungal, algal and archaeal cell wall structures and their major materials.](https://biologynotesonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Cell-Wall-Composition-in-Plants-Bacteria-Fungi-Algae-and-Archaea-1024x725.webp)Comparative diagram showing characteristic plant, bacterial, fungal, algal and archaeal cell wall structures and their major materials.

## Cell Wall Composition and Organization

The chemical composition of cell wall is not universal. It varies greatly between plants, bacteria, fungi, algae, and archaea. Even within the same biological group, different species and cell types can have variation in their wall composition. Thus, cell wall is not made up of one common material in all organisms.

Organism groupMajor characteristic wall componentsPlantsCellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins, wall proteins and in some specialized walls, ligninBacteriaPeptidoglycan (murein), with other wall-associated polymers depending on bacterial groupFungiβ-glucans, chitin, glycoproteins and other species-dependent polysaccharidesAlgaeHighly variable. Cellulose, alginates, sulfated polysaccharides and some other polymers are found in different groups. Diatoms possess silica-rich frustulesArchaeaCommonly proteinaceous S-layers. Pseudomurein and some other polymers occur in particular groups

### A. Plant Cell Wall

- The plant cell wall is a composite structure. It is not simply a layer of pure cellulose. Cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectins form the major polysaccharide components, along with different wall proteins.

- Cellulose is present as strong cellulose microfibrils. These microfibrils form an important load-bearing framework of the wall and are embedded within a surrounding matrix of other wall components.

- Hemicelluloses are a group of matrix polysaccharides associated with cellulose microfibrils. Xyloglucans, xylans, mannans and related polymers occur depending upon the plant and type of wall. Their amount and nature are not same in all plant walls.

- Pectins form another major part, particularly in primary cell walls and the middle lamella. They form a hydrated matrix and are important for wall properties and adhesion between neighbouring cells.

- Different cell wall proteins are also present. Some perform structural roles while others participate in modification and remodeling of the wall during growth.

- Other substances may be incorporated in particular walls. Lignin is an important example. It is especially associated with many secondary walls and gives additional strength and other specialized properties to these walls.

#### Middle Lamella

- The middle lamella is located between the primary walls of two adjoining plant cells. It is formed during cell division and acts as an intercellular cementing region.

- It is particularly rich in pectic polysaccharides. Due to this pectin-rich nature, the middle lamella has an important role in keeping neighbouring cells attached to one another. Its pectin can also be modified during processes where cell separation is required.

#### Primary Cell Wall

- The primary cell wall is generally associated with young and growing plant cells. It develops while the cell is still capable of expansion.

- Cellulose microfibrils occur within a matrix containing mainly hemicelluloses, pectins and wall proteins. These different components form a complex wall network rather than separate independent layers.

- Primary wall has strength, but it is also flexible and extensible. During cell enlargement, the wall can be loosened and reorganized in a controlled manner. This allows expansion while the wall continues to withstand the pressure developed inside the cell.

#### Secondary Cell Wall

- A secondary cell wall is not formed in every plant cell. It occurs mainly in particular differentiated cells where additional mechanical or functional specialization is required.

- It is deposited towards the inner side of the primary wall, usually after cell expansion has stopped or greatly reduced. The secondary wall is commonly thicker than the primary wall.

- Cellulose and hemicelluloses form important components of secondary walls. In many supporting and water-conducting cells, lignin is deposited in the wall. This process is called lignification and greatly changes the mechanical and physical properties of the wall.

#### Plasmodesmata

- [Plasmodesmata](https://biologynotesonline.com/plasmodesmata/) are narrow membrane-lined channels that pass through plant cell walls and connect neighbouring cells.

- These channels provide cytoplasmic continuity between adjoining cells. Small metabolites, signalling molecules and some macromolecules can move through plasmodesmata, but movement through them is regulated. Thus, they form an important route for symplastic transport and cell-to-cell communication.

![Cross-section of neighboring plant cells showing the middle lamella, primary and secondary walls, plasma membranes, and a plasmodesma crossing the wall.](https://biologynotesonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Plant-Cell-Wall-Structure-and-Plasmodesmata-1024x768.webp)Cross-section of neighboring plant cells showing the middle lamella, primary and secondary walls, plasma membranes, and a plasmodesma crossing the wall.

### B. Bacterial Cell Wall

- In most bacteria, the main load-bearing material of the cell wall is [peptidoglycan](https://biologynotesonline.com/bacterial-cell-wall-structure-and-composition/), also called “murein”. Peptidoglycan is a mesh-like polymer surrounding the cytoplasmic membrane.

- It is made up of long glycan strands which are joined together by short peptide chains. These peptide cross-links help in producing a continuous and mechanically strong network around the bacterial cell.

- Peptidoglycan is characteristic of most bacterial walls, but there are exceptions. Mollicutes, including Mycoplasma, naturally lack the usual peptidoglycan cell wall.

#### Gram-Positive Bacteria

- [Gram-positive bacteria](https://biologynotesonline.com/structure-of-gram-positive-cell-wall/) generally contain a relatively thick peptidoglycan layer surrounding the cytoplasmic membrane. The wall has many layers of peptidoglycan and provides major mechanical support.

- Teichoic acids are commonly associated with this wall. Wall teichoic acids are linked with peptidoglycan, whereas lipoteichoic acids are anchored in the cytoplasmic membrane and extend through the wall region.

#### Gram-Negative Bacteria

- In [Gram-negative bacteria](https://biologynotesonline.com/structure-of-gram-negative-cell-wall/), the peptidoglycan layer is much thinner. It is located in the periplasm, between the cytoplasmic membrane and an outer membrane.

- The outer membrane forms an additional external layer and has a composition different from peptidoglycan. Because of this organization, “cell wall” and “cell envelope” should not be used for exactly the same structure. The cell envelope includes the complete set of surrounding layers, whereas the peptidoglycan wall is only one part of it.

![Comparison of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial envelopes showing thick versus thin peptidoglycan and the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria.](https://biologynotesonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Gram-Positive-and-Gram-Negative-Cell-Wall-Structure-1024x768.webp)Comparison of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial envelopes showing thick versus thin peptidoglycan and the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria.

FeatureGram-positive bacteriaGram-negative bacteriaPeptidoglycanRelatively thickRelatively thinOuter membraneAbsentPresentTeichoic acidsCommonly presentAbsentPosition of peptidoglycanOutside cytoplasmic membraneIn the periplasm between inner and outer membranes

### C. Fungal Cell Wall

- The fungal cell wall is mainly made up of interconnected polysaccharides together with glycoproteins. β-glucans and chitin form major structural components in many fungi.

- β-(1,3)-glucans commonly form an important structural framework, with different amounts of branching and connection with other polymers. Chitin contributes mechanical strength to this framework.

- Glycoproteins and mannose-containing polymers are also important parts of walls in many fungi. Other substances such as α-glucans, chitosan, galactomannans and melanin can occur depending upon species and developmental stage.

- Therefore, describing fungal wall simply as a “chitin wall” is an oversimplification. Chitin is important, but fungal walls are complex structures containing glucans, proteins and several other components whose proportions can differ considerably between fungi.

![Generalized fungal cell wall showing an interconnected β-glucan and chitin scaffold with glycoproteins outside the plasma membrane.](https://biologynotesonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Fungal-Cell-Wall-Structure-With-Glucans-Chitin-and-Glycoproteins-1024x683.webp)Generalized fungal cell wall showing an interconnected β-glucan and chitin scaffold with glycoproteins outside the plasma membrane.

### D. Algal Cell Wall

- Algal cell walls show very high diversity. Algae are not a single uniform evolutionary group, and therefore one wall composition cannot be applied to all algae.

- Cellulose-containing walls occur in a number of algal groups. In some green algae, the wall may contain cellulose together with pectic substances, hemicelluloses and different glycoproteins, while other green algae contain β-mannans, β-xylans or sulfated polysaccharides.

- Brown algal walls have another type of organization. They may contain relatively small amounts of cellulose together with alginates and fucose-containing sulfated polysaccharides. Their relative proportions can vary between species.

- Sulfated polysaccharides are also common in several marine algal groups. Different red and brown algae produce chemically different wall polysaccharides, so these materials should not be considered universal algal wall components.

- Diatoms are very different. Their outer wall is called a “frustule” and is mainly formed from biogenic silica. The frustule is characteristically divided into two overlapping parts and has highly organized pores and surface patterns.

![Comparison of representative algal walls showing a cellulose-rich wall, a brown algal alginate-rich matrix, and a diatom silica frustule.](https://biologynotesonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Diversity-of-Algal-Cell-Wall-Structure-and-Composition-1024x427.webp)Comparison of representative algal walls showing a cellulose-rich wall, a brown algal alginate-rich matrix, and a diatom silica frustule.

### E. Archaeal Cell Envelopes

- Archaea generally do not contain the bacterial type of peptidoglycan. Their external cell structures show different chemical organization from bacterial walls.

- A protein or glycoprotein surface layer, called an [S-layer](https://biologynotesonline.com/cell-wall-structure-of-archaebacteria/), is very common in archaea. It consists of regularly arranged surface proteins which form a lattice around the cell.

- Some archaeal groups have different wall polymers. Pseudomurein occurs in certain methanogenic archaea, while methanochondroitin and some other polysaccharide or glycoprotein structures are present in particular lineages. These are not universal components of archaeal cell envelopes.

## Formation of Cell Wall

The formation of a new plant cell wall begins during [cytokinesis](https://biologynotesonline.com/cytokinesis/). It starts with the formation of a cell plate between the two daughter nuclei and later develops into the new wall. The process occurs in the following steps-

![Sequence of plant cytokinesis showing the phragmoplast, Golgi vesicle delivery, cell plate formation and expansion, wall maturation, and later secondary-wall deposition as a separate process.](https://biologynotesonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Plant-Cell-Wall-Formation-During-Cytokinesis-1024x374.webp)Sequence of plant cytokinesis showing the phragmoplast, Golgi vesicle delivery, cell plate formation and expansion, wall maturation, and later secondary-wall deposition as a separate process.

- Phragmoplast Formation- After nuclear division, a phragmoplast is formed in the middle region of the cell. It is mainly made up of microtubules and associated structures, which provide the site for building the new cell plate.

- Transport of Golgi Vesicles- In this step, Golgi-derived vesicles containing cell wall materials are carried towards the centre of the phragmoplast. The vesicles accumulate at the cell division plane.

- Cell Plate Formation- The transported vesicles fuse with one another. First, a tubulo-vesicular network is formed which gradually develops into a flattened cell plate. This is the beginning of the new wall between the two daughter cells.

- Cell Plate Expansion- More vesicles are continuously added around the developing cell plate. Due to this, the plate grows from the centre towards the sides of the parent cell.

- Deposition of Wall Materials- During this process, different wall materials are deposited into the developing plate. Pectins and hemicelluloses are mainly synthesized in the Golgi apparatus and transported by vesicles. Callose is also deposited temporarily in the developing cell plate.

- Fusion With Parent Wall- The expanding cell plate finally reaches the parental plasma membrane and joins with it. The cell plate becomes continuous with the existing wall and separates the two newly formed daughter cells.

- Cellulose Formation- Cellulose synthase complexes present in the plasma membrane synthesize cellulose. The cellulose chains are deposited outside the membrane in the form of microfibrils, giving strength to the newly developing wall.

- Primary Wall Maturation- Callose present during the early stage is largely removed and cellulose becomes an important structural material. Cellulose microfibrils, hemicelluloses, pectins and wall proteins become organized to form the primary cell wall. The wall remains capable of expansion in growing cells.

- Secondary Wall Formation- In some differentiated cells, after cell expansion has stopped, additional wall materials are deposited towards the inner side of the primary wall. This forms the secondary cell wall, which is usually thicker and gives additional mechanical support.

## Functions of the Cell Wall

- Mechanical support- The cell wall gives mechanical strength and supports the cell structure.

- Protection against osmotic lysis- It resists internal pressure and prevents excessive swelling or bursting of the cell.

- Maintenance of cell shape- The wall helps in maintaining the characteristic shape of plant, bacterial and fungal cells.

- Cell growth- The wall is not completely fixed. During growth, wall materials are loosened, reorganized and newly deposited.

- Protection- It forms an outer protective layer against mechanical, chemical and different environmental stresses.

- Cell adhesion- In plants, the pectin-rich middle lamella helps neighbouring cells to remain attached together.

- Transport- The cell wall is generally porous. Water and many dissolved substances can move through the wall.

- Cell communication- In plants, plasmodesmata pass through the wall and allow communication and transport between neighbouring cells.

- Growth and development- Changes in wall deposition and remodeling help in controlling cell expansion, shape and differentiation.

- Environmental interaction- The wall forms an important surface for adhesion, recognition and interaction with surrounding organisms.

- Structural stability- In many archaea, the S-layer supports cell shape and gives mechanical stability under different environmental conditions.

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